<P> Hofstede (1980) looked for differences between over 160 000 IBM employees in 50 different countries and three regions of the world, in an attempt to find aspects of culture that might influence business behavior . He suggested things about cultural differences existing in regions and nations, and the importance of international awareness and multiculturalism for their own cultural introspection . Cultural differences reflect differences in thinking and social action, and even in "mental programs", a term Hofstede uses for predictable behavior . Hofstede relates culture to ethnic and regional groups, but also organizations, professional, family, social and subcultural groups, national political systems and legislation, etc . </P> <P> Hofstede suggests the need for changing "mental programs" with changing behavior first, which will lead to value change . Though certain groups like Jews and Gypsies have maintained their identity through centuries, their values show adaptation to the dominant cultural environment . </P> <P> Hofstede demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the behavior of organizations and identified four dimensions of culture (later five) in his study of national cultures: </P> <Ul> <Li> Power distance (Mauk Mulder, 1977)--Different societies find different solutions regarding social inequality . Although invisible, inside organizations power inequality of the "boss - subordinate relationships" is functional and according to Hofstede reflects the way inequality is addressed in the society . "According to Mulder's Power Distance Reduction theory subordinates will try to reduce the power distance between themselves and their bosses and bosses will try to maintain or enlarge it", but there is also a degree to which a society expects there to be differences in the levels of power . A high score suggests that there is an expectation that some individuals wield larger amounts of power than others . A low score reflects the view that all people should have equal rights . </Li> <Li> Uncertainty avoidance is the way of coping with uncertainty about the future . Society copes with it with technology, law and religion (though different societies have different ways of addressing it), and according to Hofstede organizations deal with it with technology, law and rituals, or in two ways--rational and non-rational, with rituals being the non-rational . Hofstede listed some of the rituals as the memos and reports, some parts of the accounting system, a large part of the planning and control systems, and the nomination of experts . </Li> <Li> Individualism vs. collectivism--disharmony of interests on personal and collective goals (Parsons and Shils, 1951). Hofstede raises the idea that society's expectations of Individualism / Collectivism will be reflected by the employee inside the organization . Collectivist societies will have more emotional dependence on members in their organizations; when in equilibrium an organization is expected to show responsibility to members . Extreme individualism is seen in the US . In fact, collectivism in the US is seen as "bad". Other cultures and societies than the US will therefore seek to resolve social and organizational problems in ways different from American ways . Hofstede says that a capitalist market economy fosters individualism and competition, and depends on it, but individualism is also related to the development of the middle class . Some people and cultures might have both high individualism and high collectivism . For example, someone who highly values duty to his or her group does not necessarily give a low priority to personal freedom and self - sufficiency . </Li> <Li> Masculinity vs. femininity--reflects whether a certain society is predominantly male or female in terms of cultural values, gender roles and power relations . </Li> <Li> Long - Versus Short - Term Orientation which he describes as "The long - term orientation dimension can be interpreted as dealing with society's search for virtue . Societies with a short - term orientation generally have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth . They are normative in their thinking . They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results . In societies with a long - term orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time . They show an ability to adapt traditions to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results ." </Li> </Ul>

Who identified five major dimensions of national culture as they apply to human resource management