<P> Blueprint and synoptic planning both employ what is called the rational paradigm of planning . The rational model is perhaps the most widely accepted model among planning practitioners and scholars, and is considered by many to be the orthodox view of planning . As its name clearly suggests, the goal of the rational model is to make planning as rational and systematic as possible . Proponents of this paradigm would generally come up with a list of steps that the planning process can be at least relatively neatly sorted out into and that planning practitioners should go through in order when setting out to plan in virtually any area . As noted above, this paradigm has clear implications for public involvement in planning decisions . </P> <P> Participatory planning is an urban planning paradigm that emphasizes involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning; or, community - level planning processes, urban or rural . It is often considered as part of community development . Participatory planning aims to harmonize views among all of its participants as well as prevent conflict between opposing parties . In addition, marginalized groups have an opportunity to participate in the planning process . </P> <P> Beginning in the late 1950s and early 1960s, critiques of the rational paradigm began to emerge and formed into several different schools of planning thought . The first of these schools is Lindblom's incrementalism . Lindblom describes planning as "muddling through" and thought that practical planning required decisions to be made incrementally . This incremental approach meant choosing from small number of policy approaches that can only have a small number consequences and are firmly bounded by reality, constantly adjusting the objectives of the planning process and using multiple analyses and evaluations . Lane (2005) explains the public involvement implications of this philosophy . Though this perspective of planning could be considered a large step forward in that it recognizes that there are number of "public interests" and because it provides room for the planning process to be less centralized and incorporate the voices other than those of planners, it in practice would only allow for the public to be involved in a minimal, more reactive rather than proactive way . </P> <P> The mixed scanning model, developed by Etzioni, takes a similar, but slightly different approach . Etzioni (1968) suggested that organizations plan on two different levels: the tactical and the strategic . He posited that organizations could accomplish this by essentially scanning the environment on multiple levels and then choose different strategies and tactics to address what they found there . While Lindblom's approach only operated on the functional level Etzioni argued, the mixed scanning approach would allow planning organizations to work on both the functional and more big - picture oriented levels . Lane explains though, that this model does not do much more at improving public involvement since the planner or planning organization is still at its focus and since its goal is not necessarily to achieve consensus or reconcile differing points of view on a particular subject . </P>

According to theories that employ the concept of reaction range