<P> As a result of the Pax Mongolica, Europeans, such as Marco Polo, began to venture further and further east . This led to the increased awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture and civilization within the European tradition . Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England), and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill . </P> <P> At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries . By then, the natural philosophy in these texts began to be extended by scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus . Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus . Pierre Duhem's thesis is that Stephen Tempier - the Bishop of Paris - Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages saw important scientific developments . </P> <P> The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings . William of Ockham emphasised the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye . Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics . In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia . The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion . </P> <P> In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development . Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West . Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society . The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as algebra to propagate more rapidly . These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed . </P>

Early interest in measuring intelligence dates back to the late 19th century when