<P> Because force is the time derivative of momentum, the concept of force is redundant and subordinate to the conservation of momentum, and is not used in fundamental theories (e.g., quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, general relativity, etc .). The standard model explains in detail how the three fundamental forces known as gauge forces originate out of exchange by virtual particles . Other forces, such as gravity and fermionic degeneracy pressure, also arise from the momentum conservation . Indeed, the conservation of 4 - momentum in inertial motion via curved space - time results in what we call gravitational force in general relativity theory . The application of the space derivative (which is a momentum operator in quantum mechanics) to the overlapping wave functions of a pair of fermions (particles with half - integer spin) results in shifts of maxima of compound wavefunction away from each other, which is observable as the "repulsion" of the fermions . </P> <P> Newton stated the third law within a world - view that assumed instantaneous action at a distance between material particles . However, he was prepared for philosophical criticism of this action at a distance, and it was in this context that he stated the famous phrase "I feign no hypotheses". In modern physics, action at a distance has been completely eliminated, except for subtle effects involving quantum entanglement . (In particular, this refers to Bell's theorem--that no local model can reproduce the predictions of quantum theory .) Despite only being an approximation, in modern engineering and all practical applications involving the motion of vehicles and satellites, the concept of action at a distance is used extensively . </P> <P> The discovery of the second law of thermodynamics by Carnot in the 19th century showed that not every physical quantity is conserved over time, thus disproving the validity of inducing the opposite metaphysical view from Newton's laws . Hence, a "steady - state" worldview based solely on Newton's laws and the conservation laws does not take entropy into account . </P>

Which are based on the principles of newton's laws of motion