<P> Among the potential solutions posited by economists are single - payer systems as well as other methods of ensuring that health insurance is universal, such as by requiring all citizens to purchase insurance or limiting the ability of insurance companies to deny insurance to individuals or vary price between individuals . </P> <P> Single - payer health care is a system in which the government, rather than private insurers, pays for all health care costs . Single - payer systems may contract for healthcare services from private organizations (as is the case in Canada) or own and employ healthcare resources and personnel (as was the case in England before the introduction of the Health and Social Care Act). "Single - payer" thus describes only the funding mechanism and refers to health care financed by a single public body from a single fund and does not specify the type of delivery or for whom doctors work . Although the fund holder is usually the state, some forms of single - payer use a mixed public - private system . </P> <P> In tax - based financing, individuals contribute to the provision of health services through various taxes . These are typically pooled across the whole population, unless local governments raise and retain tax revenues . Some countries (notably the United Kingdom, Canada, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, Spain, Portugal and the Nordic countries) choose to fund health care directly from taxation alone . Other countries with insurance - based systems effectively meet the cost of insuring those unable to insure themselves via social security arrangements funded from taxation, either by directly paying their medical bills or by paying for insurance premiums for those affected . </P> <P> In a social health insurance system, contributions from workers, the self - employed, enterprises, and governments are pooled into a single or multiple funds on a compulsory basis . It is based on risk pooling . The social health insurance model is also referred to as the' Bismarck Model,' after Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who introduced the first universal health care system in Germany in the 19th century . The funds typically contract with a mix of public and private providers for the provision of a specified benefit package . Preventive and public health care may be provided by these funds or responsibility kept solely by the Ministry of Health . Within social health insurance, a number of functions may be executed by parastatal or non-governmental sickness funds or in a few cases, by private health insurance companies . Social health insurance is used in a number of Western European countries and increasingly in Eastern Europe as well as in Israel and Japan . </P>

Which of the following does not describe the japanese health care system