<P> In her study of gender politics in Israel, Dafna Izraeli showed that the paradox of affirmative action for women directors is that the legitimation for legislating their inclusion on boards also resulted in the exclusion of women's interested as a legitimate issue on the boards' agendas . "The new culture of the men's club is seductive token women are under the pressure to become "social males" and prove that their competence as directors, meaning that they are not significantly different from men . In the negotiation for status as worthy peers, emphasizing gender signals that a woman is an "imposter", someone who does not rightfully belong in the position she is claiming to fill ." And once affirmative action for women is fulfilled, and then affirmative action shares the element, as Izraeli put it, the "group equality discourse," making it easier for other groups to claim for a fairer distribution of resources . This suggests that affirmative action can have applications for different groups in Israel . </P> <P> Reservation in India is a form of affirmative action designed to improve the well - being of backward and under - represented communities defined primarily by their caste . Reservation in India favors the majority of the population with more than 70% of Indian Citizens eligible for reservation benefits . 49.5% of all college admissions and government jobs are reserved for this 70% majority but they can also compete for the remaining 50.5% unreserved quota as well . Further, only 0.6% of scholarships disbursed by the government were given on the basis of merit, with over 94% of the scholarships given on basis of Reservation instead . </P> <P> The Malaysian New Economic Policy or NEP serves as a form of affirmative action . Malaysia provides affirmative action to the majority because in general, the Malays have lower incomes than the Chinese, who have traditionally been involved in businesses and industries, but who were also general migrant workers . Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country, with Malays making up the majority of close to 52% of the population . About 23% of the population are Malaysians of Chinese descent, while Malaysians of Indian descent comprise about 7% of the population . </P> <P> (See also Bumiputra) The mean income for Malays, Chinese and Indians in 1957 / 58 were 134, 288 and 228 respectively . In 1967 / 68 it was 154, 329 and 245, and in 1970 it was 170, 390 and 300 . Mean income disparity ratio for Chinese / Malays rose from 2.1 in 1957 / 58 to 2.3 in 1970, whereas for Indians / Malays the disparity ratio also rose from 1.7 to 1.8 in the same period . The Malays viewed Independence as restoring their proper place in their own country's socioeconomic order while the non-Malays were opposing government efforts to advance Malay political primacy and economic welfare . </P>

When was affirmative action introduced in south africa