<P> The First English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between James' son, Charles I, and Parliament . The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces . Charles surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark . He was eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647 . He escaped, and the Second English Civil War began, although it was a short conflict, with the New Model Army quickly securing the country . The capture and subsequent trial of Charles led to his beheading in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London, making England a republic . The trial and execution of Charles by his own subjects shocked the rest of Europe (the king argued to the end that only God could judge him) and was a precursor of sorts to the beheading of Louis XVI 145 years later . </P> <P> The New Model Army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, then scored decisive victories against Royalist armies in Ireland and Scotland . Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector in 1653, making him' king in all but name' to his critics . After he died in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeded him in the office but he was forced to abdicate within a year . For a while it looked as if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army split into factions . Troops stationed in Scotland under the command of George Monck eventually marched on London to restore order . </P> <P> The monarchy was restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London . </P> <P> In 1665, London was swept by a visitation of the plague, and then, in 1666, the capital was swept by the Great Fire, which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately 15,000 buildings . After the Restoration, there was an overall reduction in the power of the crown, and by the 18th century England rivaled the Netherlands for being one of the freest countries in Europe . </P>

When did the norman era start and end