<P> Organization development, as a growing field, is responsive to many new approaches . </P> <P> Kurt Lewin (1898--1947) is widely recognized as the founding father of OD, although he died before the concept became mainstream in the mid-1950s . From Lewin came the ideas of group dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its collaborative consultant / client ethos . Institutionally, Lewin founded the "Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after his death . RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the National Training Laboratories (NTL), from which the T - groups and group - based OD emerged . </P> <P> Kurt Lewin played a key role in the evolution of organization development as it is known today . As early as World War II (1939 - 1945), Lewin experimented with a collaborative change - process (involving himself as consultant and a client group) based on a three - step process of planning, taking action, and measuring results . This was the forerunner of action research, an important element of OD, which will be discussed later . Lewin then participated in the beginnings of laboratory training, or T - groups . After Lewin's death in 1947, his close associates helped to develop survey - research methods at the University of Michigan . These procedures became important parts of OD as developments in this field continued at the National Training Laboratories and in growing numbers of universities and private consulting - firms across the country . Leading universities offering doctoral - level degrees in OD include Benedictine University and the Fielding Graduate University . </P> <P> Douglas and Richard Beckhard, while "consulting together at General Mills in the 1950s (...) coined the term organization development (OD) to describe an innovative bottom - up change effort that fit no traditional consulting categories" (Weisbord, 1987, p. 112). </P>

Which of these is not a common method of organizational develoment (od)