<P> McNicoll (2006) examines the common features behind the striking changes in health and fertility in East and Southeast Asia in the 1960s--1990's, focusing on seven countries: Taiwan and South Korea ("tiger" economies), Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia ("second wave" countries), and China and Vietnam ("market - Leninist" economies). Demographic change can be seen as a byproduct of social and economic development together with, in some cases, strong governmental pressures . The transition sequence entailed the establishment of an effective, typically authoritarian, system of local administration, providing a framework for promotion and service delivery in health, education, and family planning . Subsequent economic liberalization offered new opportunities for upward mobility--and risks of backsliding--, accompanied by the erosion of social capital and the breakdown or privatization of service programs . </P> <P> As of year 2013, India is in the later half of the third stage of the demographic transition, with a population of 1.23 billion . It is nearly 40 years behind in the demographic transition process compared to EU countries, Japan, etc . The present demographic transition stage of India along with its higher population base will yield rich demographic dividend in future decades . </P> <P> Cha (2007) analyzes a panel data set to explore how industrial revolution, demographic transition, and human capital accumulation interacted in Korea from 1916--38 . Income growth and public investment in health caused mortality to fall, which suppressed fertility and promoted education . Industrialization, skill premium, and closing gender wage gap further induced parents to opt for child quality . Expanding demand for education was accommodated by an active public school building program . The interwar agricultural depression aggravated traditional income inequality, raising fertility and impeding the spread of mass schooling . Landlordism collapsed in the wake of de-colonization, and the consequent reduction in inequality accelerated human and physical capital accumulation, hence leading to growth in South Korea . </P> <P> Campbell has studied the demography of 19th - century Madagascar in the light of demographic transition theory . Both supporters and critics of the theory hold to an intrinsic opposition between human and "natural" factors, such as climate, famine, and disease, influencing demography . They also suppose a sharp chronological divide between the precolonial and colonial eras, arguing that whereas "natural" demographic influences were of greater importance in the former period, human factors predominated thereafter . Campbell argues that in 19th - century Madagascar the human factor, in the form of the Merina state, was the predominant demographic influence . However, the impact of the state was felt through natural forces, and it varied over time . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries Merina state policies stimulated agricultural production, which helped to create a larger and healthier population and laid the foundation for Merina military and economic expansion within Madagascar . From 1820, the cost of such expansionism led the state to increase its exploitation of forced labor at the expense of agricultural production and thus transformed it into a negative demographic force . Infertility and infant mortality, which were probably more significant influences on overall population levels than the adult mortality rate, increased from 1820 due to disease, malnutrition, and stress, all of which stemmed from state forced labor policies . Available estimates indicate little if any population growth for Madagascar between 1820 and 1895 . The demographic "crisis" in Africa, ascribed by critics of the demographic transition theory to the colonial era, stemmed in Madagascar from the policies of the imperial Merina regime, which in this sense formed a link to the French regime of the colonial era . Campbell thus questions the underlying assumptions governing the debate about historical demography in Africa and suggests that the demographic impact of political forces be reevaluated in terms of their changing interaction with "natural" demographic influences . </P>

The united states is in which stage of the demographic transition model