<P> Both Slonimskaia and Efimova worked not only to elevate the art of puppetry but wrote theatrical theories about puppets, their application, design and development . By 1918, Efimova and her husband, Ivan Efimov, a sculptor, had been asked to set up a children's theater in line with the government's socialist restructuring policy, becoming the first professional puppetmasters in Russia, earning themselves the title of the Adam and Eve of Russian puppetry . Taking their hand puppet show on the road, the Efimovs sole means of support for six years was earned from their theater . Through the course of her career, Efimova, who was the driving force behind the puppets, patented innovative designs for shadow plays using silhouettes, rod puppets as well as life - sized manikins, in her attempts to "to establish puppetry's validity as a unique discipline". Slonimskaia's work focused mainly on marionettes, which she later took to France, Portugal and the United States . </P> <P> By 1924, politically - motivated theaters had spring up in several locations, such as the Petrushka Theater, founded by Yevgeny Demmeni (ru) in Saint Petersburg . That theater merged with the Petrograd Marionette Theatre and was later renamed the Leningrad Puppet Theatre . In 1929, the Children's Theatre Book opened and in 1931, the Bolshoi Puppet Theatre opened in Leningrad . By the 1930s, state regulations required that all performances, i.e. circuses, variety shows, music performances and puppet theaters be controlled by GOMETs, the State Department created specifically for their regulation . One of the measures GOMETs put in place was that performances must be held in established theater venues and could no longer be itinerant street performances . Sergey Obraztsov gave his first solo performance as a puppeteer in 1923, but worked mainly as a stage actor until 1931, when he was approached by the managers of the Central Children's Art Studio to form a puppet theater . Becoming the art director of the Central State Puppet Theatre, Obraztsov staged parody - plays with themes geared toward both adults and children . He performed with both glove puppets and marionettes, traveling in and around Moscow until 1938, when he established his own theater . After his theater was bombed during the war, he relocated to Novosibirsk until the war ended . Obraztsov characters evoked a realistic expression and performed both classic folk tales and sophisticated literary works . </P> <P> During the Soviet era, theaters spread throughout the USSR to provincial towns like Arkhangelsk, Ivanovo, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov, Rybinsk, Samara and Yaroslavl, as well as to other Soviet states . The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic developed a strong marionette tradition and in the Khakassian Republic, a puppet theater in Abakan gained note . There was an effort made to veer toward making puppets more humanistic and away from their folk art roots, which led away from use of marionettes and focus almost exclusively on glove or rod puppets . In 1959, the Leningrad Institute for Music, Film, and Theater created a puppet department, formalizing state training for puppetmasters . During the policy reforms in the Gorbachev era, experimentation began with puppeteers appearing on - stage with their manikins and even with actors portraying puppet characters . Revaz Gabriadze was one of the most widely known puppeteers from the end of the Soviet era . </P> <P> In 2000 the Museum of Architecture in Moscow held an exhibition of puppets made by prominent performers to show variations in design and artistry associated with manikins . Puppet theater without the constraint of realism, has returned to its earlier roots . Marionettes have seen a re-emergence and a range of performance approaches, once again including shadow plays, and traditional puppet movement, are employed . Theater has moved away from both a venue solely for children and often features texts written, rather than adapted from other works, specifically for puppet performances . </P>

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