<P> In several large developing countries and fast growing economies (China, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). For example, emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990--2005 period, often by more than 10% year . Emissions per - capita in non-Annex I countries are still, for the most part, much lower than in industrialized countries . Non-Annex I countries do not have quantitative emission reduction commitments, but they are committed to mitigation actions . China, for example, has had a national policy programme to reduce emissions growth, which included the closure of old, less efficient coal - fired power plants . </P> <P> Barker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol . Due to non-US participation in the Kyoto treaty, costs estimates were found to be much lower than those estimated in the previous IPCC Third Assessment Report . Without US participation, and with full use of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costs were estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP . This compared to earlier estimates of 0.1--1.1% . Without use of the flexible mechanisms, costs without US participation were estimated at less than 0.1% . This compared to earlier estimates of 0.2--2% . These cost estimates were viewed as being based on much evidence and high agreement in the literature . </P> <P> Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on climate change policy . They found that no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, succeed in solving the climate problem . In these assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol include provisions for future policy actions to be taken . </P> <P> Gupta et al. (2007) described the Kyoto first - round commitments as "modest," stating that they acted as a constraint on the treaty's effectiveness . It was suggested that subsequent Kyoto commitments could be made more effective with measures aimed at achieving deeper cuts in emissions, as well as having policies applied to a larger share of global emissions . In 2008, countries with a Kyoto cap made up less than one - third of annual global carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion . </P>

Which of the following global issues does the 1997 kyoto protocol address