<P> Our knowledge of this period is supplemented by Pali Buddhist texts . Whereas the Brahmanical texts speak of the four-fold varna system, the Buddhist texts present an alternative picture of the society, stratified along the lines of jati, kula and occupation . It is likely that the varna system, while being a part of the Brahmanical ideology, was not practically operative in the society . In the Buddhist texts, Brahmin and Kshatriya are described as jatis rather than varnas . They were in fact the jatis of high rank . The jatis of low rank were mentioned as chandala and occupational classes like bamboo weavers, hunters, chariot - makers and sweepers . The concept of kulas was broadly similar . Along with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, a class called gahapatis (literally householders, but effectively propertied classes) was also included among high kulas . The people of high kulas were engaged in occupations of high rank, viz., agriculture, trade, cattle - keeping, computing, accounting and writing, and those of low kulas were engaged in low - ranked occupations such as basket - weaving and sweeping . The gahapatis were an economic class of land - holding agriculturists, who employed dasa - kammakaras (slaves and hired labourers) to work on the land . The gahapatis were the primary taxpayers of the state . This class was apparently not defined by birth, but by individual economic growth . </P> <P> While there was an alignment between kulas and occupations at least at the high and low ends, there was no strict linkage between class / caste and occupation, especially among those in the middle range . Many occupations listed such as accounting and writing were not linked to jatis . Peter Masefield, in his review of caste situation in India states that anyone could in principle perform any profession . The texts state that the Brahmin took food from anyone, suggesting that strictures of commensality were as yet unknown . The Nikaya texts also imply that endogamy was not mandated . </P> <P> The contestations of the period are evident from the texts describing dialogues of Buddha with the Brahmins . The Brahmins maintain their divinely ordained superiority and assert their right to draw service from the lower orders . Buddha responds by pointing out the basic facts of biological birth common to all men and asserts that the ability to draw service is obtained economically, not by divine right . Using the example of the northwest of the subcontinent, Buddha points out that aryas could become dasas and vice versa . This form of social mobility was endorsed by Buddha . </P> <P> The Mahabharata, whose final version is estimated to have been completed by the end of the fourth century, discusses the varna system in section 12.181, presenting two models . The first model describes varna as a colour - based system, through a character named Bhrigu, "Brahmins varna was white, Kshtriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black". This description is questioned by Bharadvaja who says that colors are seen among all the varnas, that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes the varnas, he asks . The Mahabharata then declares, "There is no distinction of varnas . This whole universe is Brahman . It was created formerly by Brahma, came to be classified by acts ." The epic then recites a behavioral model for varna, that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshtriya varna; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off the plough attained the Vaishya varna; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudra varna . The Brahmin class is modeled in the epic as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct . In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it is important to recognise, in theory, varna is nongenealogical . The four varnas are not lineages, but categories ." </P>

How did caste class and family change in india after the arrival of islam