<P> Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made . The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists . In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms . Albertus Magnus, a Dominican monk, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time . Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals . From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist . Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas . </P> <P> Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his Great Work (Latin: Opus Majus) for Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time . While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology . Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life . His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy . Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres . He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time . The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine . In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage . In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions . </P> <P> Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared . His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods . It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur - mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described . By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief . Adepts believed in the macrocosm - microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated . Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated . Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam . By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God . </P> <P> In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars . Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves . Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars . Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent quas non exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists . In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone . The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova . </P>

What was a basic concept in 17th century europe regarding religious diversity