<P> The first historical studies in English appeared in the 1890s, and followed one of four approaches . 1) The territorial narrative was typically written by a veteran soldier or civil servant who gave heavy emphasis to what he had seen . 2) The "apologia" were essays designed to justify British policies . 3) Popularizers tried to reach a large audience . 4) Compendia appeared designed to combine academic and official credentials . Professional scholarship appeared around 1900, and began with the study of business operations, typically using government documents and unpublished archives . </P> <P> The economic approach was widely practiced in the 1930s, primarily to provide descriptions of the changes underway in the previous half - century . In 1935, American historian William L. Langer published The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890--1902, a book that is still widely cited . In 1939, Oxford professor Reginald Copeland published The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856--1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble, another popular treatment . </P> <P> World War II diverted most scholars to wartime projects and accounted for a pause in scholarship during the 1940s . </P> <P> By the 1950s many African students were studying in British universities, and they produced a demand for new scholarship, and started themselves to supply it as well . Oxford University became the main center for African studies, with activity as well at Cambridge University and the London School of Economics . The perspective of British government policymakers or international business operations slowly gave way to a new interest in the activities of the natives, especially nationalistic movements and the growing demand for independence . The major breakthrough came from Ronald Robinson and John Andrew Gallagher, especially with their studies of the impact of free trade on Africa . In 1985 The Oxford History of South Africa (2 vols .) was published, attempting to synthesize the available materials . In 2013, The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History was published, bringing the scholarship up to date . </P>

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