<P> Constitutionalism was only established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch . Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed . Since 2017, the head of the House of Osman and pretender to the defunct Ottoman throne has been Dündar Ali Osman, a great - grandson of Abdulhamid II . </P> <P> The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order . The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans . They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait . The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate . For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned . This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged . Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor . In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت ‎ ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family . This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother . Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture . </P> <Table> <Tr> <Th> No </Th> <Th> Sultan </Th> <Th> Portrait </Th> <Th> Reigned from </Th> <Th> Reigned until </Th> <Th> Tughra </Th> <Th> Notes </Th> </Tr> <Tr> <Td_colspan="7"> Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299--1453) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> Osman I ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> c. 1299 </Td> <Td> 1323 </Td> <Td>--</Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ertuğrul and an unknown woman . </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> Orhan ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 1323 </Td> <Td> 1362 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Osman I and Malhun Hatun . </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> Murad I SULTAN - İ AZAM (The Most Exalted Sultan) HÜDAVENDİGÂR (The devotee of God) ŞEHÎD (Martyr) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 1362 </Td> <Td> 15 June 1389 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Orhan and Nilüfer Hatun . </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> <Li> Killed on the battlefield at the Battle of Kosovo on June 15, 1389 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> Bayezid I SULTAN - İ RÛM (Sultan of the Roman Empire) YILDIRIM (Lightning) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 15 June 1389 </Td> <Td> 20 July 1402 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Murad I and Gülçiçek Hatun . </Li> <Li> Captured on the battlefield at the Battle of Ankara (de facto end of reign); </Li> <Li> Died in captivity in Akşehir on 8 March 1403 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td_colspan="7"> Ottoman Interregnum (20 July 1402--5 July 1413) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 5 </Td> <Td> Mehmed I ÇELEBİ (The Affable) KİRİŞÇİ (lit . The Bowstring Maker for his support) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 5 July 1413 </Td> <Td> 26 May 1421 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Bayezid I and Devlet Hatun . </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 6 </Td> <Td> Murad II KOCA (The Great) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 25 June 1421 </Td> <Td> 1444 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mehmed I and Emine Hatun; </Li> <Li> Abdicated of his own free will in favour of his son Mehmed II . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 7 </Td> <Td> Mehmed II FĀTİḤ (The Conqueror) فاتح ‎ </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 1444 </Td> <Td> 1446 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Murad II and Hüma Hatun . </Li> <Li> Surrendered the throne to his father after having asked him to return to power, along with rising threats from Janissaries . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td>--</Td> <Td> Murad II KOCA (The Great) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 1446 </Td> <Td> 3 February 1451 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Second reign; </Li> <Li> Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary insurgence; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td_colspan="7"> Growth of the Ottoman Empire (1453--1550) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td>--</Td> <Td> Mehmed II KAYSER - İ RÛM (Caesar of the Roman Empire) FĀTİḤ (The Conqueror) فاتح ‎ </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 3 February 1451 </Td> <Td> 3 May 1481 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Second reign; </Li> <Li> Conquered Constantinople in 1453; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 8 </Td> <Td> Bayezid II VELÎ (The Saint) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 19 May 1481 </Td> <Td> 25 April 1512 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mehmed II and Gülbahar Hatun . </Li> <Li> Abdicated . </Li> <Li> Died near Didymoteicho on 26 May 1512 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 9 </Td> <Td> Selim I YAVUZ (The Strong) Hadim'ul Haramain'ish - Sharifain (Servant of Mecca and Medina) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 25 April 1512 </Td> <Td> 21 September 1520 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Bayezid II and Gülbahar Hatun . </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 10 </Td> <Td> Suleiman I MUHTEŞEM (The Magnificent) <P> or KANÛNÎ (The Lawgiver) قانونى ‎ </P> </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 30 September 1520 </Td> <Td> 6 or 7 September 1566 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Selim I and Hafsa Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td_colspan="7"> Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1550--1700) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 11 </Td> <Td> Selim II SARI (The Blond) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 29 September 1566 </Td> <Td> 21 December 1574 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Suleiman I and Hürrem Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 12 </Td> <Td> Murad III </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 22 December 1574 </Td> <Td> 16 January 1595 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Selim II and Nurbanu Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 13 </Td> <Td> Mehmed III ADLÎ (The Just) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 27 January 1595 </Td> <Td> 20 or 21 December 1603 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Murad III and Safiye Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death; </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 14 </Td> <Td> Ahmed I BAḪTī (The Fortunate) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 21 December 1603 </Td> <Td> 22 November 1617 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mehmed III and Handan Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 15 </Td> <Td> Mustafa I DELİ (The Mad) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 22 November 1617 </Td> <Td> 26 February 1618 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mehmed III and Halime Sultan; </Li> <Li> Deposed due to his mental instability in favour of his young nephew Osman II . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 16 </Td> <Td> Osman II GENÇ (The Young) ŞEHÎD (The Martyr) شهيد ‎ </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 26 February 1618 </Td> <Td> 19 May 1622 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ahmed I and Mahfiruz Hatun; </Li> <Li> Deposed in a Janissary riot on 19 May 1622; </Li> <Li> Murdered on 20 May 1622 by the Grand Vizier Kara Davud Pasha . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td>--</Td> <Td> Mustafa I DELİ (The Mad) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 20 May 1622 </Td> <Td> 10 September 1623 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Second reign; </Li> <Li> Returned to the throne after the assassination of his nephew Osman II; </Li> <Li> Deposed due to his poor mental health and confined until his death in Istanbul on 20 January 1639 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 17 </Td> <Td> Murad IV SAHİB - Î KIRAN The Conqueror of Baghdad ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) غازى ‎ </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 10 September 1623 </Td> <Td> 8 or 9 February 1640 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 18 </Td> <Td> Ibrahim DELİ (The Mad) The Conqueror of Crete ŞEHÎD </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 9 February 1640 </Td> <Td> 8 August 1648 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan; </Li> <Li> Deposed on 8 August 1648 in a coup led by the Sheikh ul - Islam; </Li> <Li> Strangled in Istanbul on 18 August 1648 at the behest of the Grand Vizier Mevlevî Mehmed Paşa (Sofu Mehmed Pasha). </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 19 </Td> <Td> Mehmed IV AVCI (The Hunter) ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) غازى ‎ </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 8 August 1648 </Td> <Td> 8 November 1687 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ibrahim and Turhan Sultan; </Li> <Li> Deposed on 8 November 1687 following the Ottoman defeat at the Second Battle of Mohács; </Li> <Li> Died in Edirne on 6 January 1693 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 20 </Td> <Td> Suleiman II ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 8 November 1687 </Td> <Td> 22 June 1691 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ibrahim and Aşub Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 21 </Td> <Td> Ahmed II ḪĀN ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior Prince) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 22 June 1691 </Td> <Td> 6 February 1695 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ibrahim and Muazzez Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 22 </Td> <Td> Mustafa II ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 6 February 1695 </Td> <Td> 22 August 1703 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mehmed IV and Gülnuş Sultan; </Li> <Li> Deposed on 22 August 1703 by a Janissary uprising known as the Edirne Event; </Li> <Li> Died in Istanbul on 8 January 1704 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td_colspan="7"> Stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire (1700--1827) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 23 </Td> <Td> Ahmed III Tulip Era Sultan ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 22 August 1703 </Td> <Td> 1 or 2 October 1730 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mehmed IV and Gülnuş Sultan; </Li> <Li> Deposed in consequence of the Janissary rebellion led by Patrona Halil; </Li> <Li> Died on 1 July 1736 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 24 </Td> <Td> Mahmud I ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) KAMBUR (The Hunchback) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 2 October 1730 </Td> <Td> 13 December 1754 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mustafa II and Saliha Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 25 </Td> <Td> Osman III SOFU (The Devout) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 13 December 1754 </Td> <Td> 29 or 30 October 1757 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mustafa II and Şehsuvar Sultan; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 26 </Td> <Td> Mustafa III YENİLİKÇİ (The First Innovative) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 30 October 1757 </Td> <Td> 21 January 1774 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ahmed III and Mihrişah Kadın; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 27 </Td> <Td> Abdülhamid I Abd ūl - Hāmīd (The Servant of God) ISLAHATÇI (The Improver) ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 21 January 1774 </Td> <Td> 6 or 7 April 1789 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Ahmed III and Şermi Kadın; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 28 </Td> <Td> Selim III BESTEKÂR (The Composer) NİZÂMÎ (Regulative - Orderly) ŞEHÎD (The Martyr) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 7 April 1789 </Td> <Td> 29 May 1807 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mustafa III and Mihrişah Sultan; </Li> <Li> Deposed as a result of the Janissary revolt led by Kabakçı Mustafa against his reforms; </Li> <Li> Assassinated in Istanbul on 28 July 1808 at the behest of Ottoman Sultan Mustafa IV . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 29 </Td> <Td> Mustafa IV </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 29 May 1807 </Td> <Td> 28 July 1808 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Abdülhamid I and Sineperver Sultan; </Li> <Li> Deposed in an insurrection led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha; </Li> <Li> Executed in Istanbul on 17 November 1808 by order of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td_colspan="7"> Modernization of the Ottoman Empire (1827--1908) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 30 </Td> <Td> Mahmud II İNKILÂPÇI (The Reformer) ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 28 July 1808 </Td> <Td> 1 July 1839 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Abdülhamid I and Nakşidil Sultan (adoptive mother of Mahmud II); </Li> <Li> Disbanded the Janissaries in consequence of the Auspicious Event in 1826; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 31 </Td> <Td> Abdülmecid I TANZİMÂTÇI (The Strong Reformist or The Advocate of Reorganization) ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 1 July 1839 </Td> <Td> 25 June 1861 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mahmud II and Bezmiâlem Sultan; </Li> <Li> Proclaimed the Hatt - ı Sharif (Imperial Edict) of Gülhane (Tanzimât Fermânı) that launched the Tanzimat period of reforms and reorganization on 3 November 1839 at the behest of reformist Grand Vizier Great Mustafa Rashid Pasha; </Li> <Li> Accepted the Islâhat Hatt - ı Hümayun (Imperial Reform Edict) (Islâhat Fermânı) on 18 February 1856; </Li> <Li> Reigned until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 32 </Td> <Td> Abdülaziz I BAḪTSIZ (The Unfortunate) ŞEHĪD (The Martyr) </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 25 June 1861 </Td> <Td> 30 May 1876 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan; </Li> <Li> Deposed by his ministers; </Li> <Li> Found dead (suicide or murder) five days later . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 33 </Td> <Td> Murad V </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 30 May 1876 </Td> <Td> 31 August 1876 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Abdülmecid I and Şevkefza Kadın; </Li> <Li> Deposed due to his efforts to implement democratic reforms in the empire; </Li> <Li> Ordered to reside in Çırağan Palace where he died on 29 August 1904 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 34 </Td> <Td> Abdülhamid II Ulû Sultân Abd ūl - Hāmīd Khan <P> (The Sublime Khan) </P> </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 31 August 1876 </Td> <Td> 27 April 1909 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Abdülmecid I and Tirimüjgan Kadın and later the adoptive son of Perestu Kadın). </Li> <Li> Reluctantly allowed the First Constitutional Era on 23 November 1876 and then suspended it and reverted to personal rule on 13 February 1878; </Li> <Li> Forced to restore the Second Constitutional Era on 3 July 1908; </Li> <Li> Deposed after the 31 March Incident (on 13 April 1909); </Li> <Li> Confined to Beylerbeyi Palace where he died on 10 February 1918 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td_colspan="7"> Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908--1922) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 35 </Td> <Td> Mehmed V REŞÂD (Rashād) <P> (The True Path Follower) </P> </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 27 April 1909 </Td> <Td> 3 July 1918 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Abdülmecid I and Gülcemal Kadın; </Li> <Li> Reigned as a figurehead of Mehmed Talat, İsmail Enver, and Ahmed Cemal Pashas until his death . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 36 </Td> <Td> Mehmed VI VAHDETTİN (Wāhīd ād - Dīn) <P> (The Unifier of Religion (Islam) or The Oneness of Islam) </P> </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 4 July 1918 </Td> <Td> 1 November 1922 </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Abdülmecid I and Gülüstü Hanım; </Li> <Li> Sultanate abolished; </Li> <Li> Left Istanbul on 17 November 1922; </Li> <Li> Died in exile in Sanremo, Italy on 16 May 1926 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td_colspan="7"> Republican Caliphate (1 November 1922--3 March 1924) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td>--</Td> <Td> Abdülmecid II </Td> <Td> </Td> <Td> 18 November 1922 </Td> <Td> 3 March 1924 </Td> <Td>--</Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Son of Abdülaziz I and Hayranidil Kadın; </Li> <Li> Elected caliph by the TBMM; </Li> <Li> Exiled after the abolition of the caliphate; </Li> <Li> Died in Paris, France on 23 August 1944 . </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> </Table> <Tr> <Th> No </Th> <Th> Sultan </Th> <Th> Portrait </Th> <Th> Reigned from </Th> <Th> Reigned until </Th> <Th> Tughra </Th> <Th> Notes </Th> </Tr>

Who ruled the ottoman empire at its height in about 1550