<P> The high protectionism tariffs Hamilton originally called for were not adopted until after the War of 1812, when nationalists such as Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun saw the need for more federal income and more industry . In wartime, they declared, having a home industry was a necessity to avoid shortages . Likewise owners of the small new factories that were springing up in the northeast to mass - produce boots, hats, nails and other common items wanted higher tariffs that would significantly protect them for a time from more efficient British producers . A 10% discount on the customs tax was offered on items imported in American ships, so that the American merchant marine would be supported . </P> <P> Once industrialization and mass production started, the demand for higher and higher tariffs came from manufacturers and factory workers . They believed that their businesses should be protected from the lower wages and more efficient factories of Britain and the rest of Europe . Nearly every northern Congressman was eager to logroll a higher tariff rate for his local industry . Senator Daniel Webster, formerly a spokesperson for Boston's merchants who imported goods (and wanted low tariffs), switched dramatically to represent the manufacturing interests in the Tariff of 1824 . Rates were especially high for bolts of cloth and for bar iron, of which Britain was a low - cost producer . The culmination came in the Tariff of 1828, ridiculed by free traders as the "Tariff of Abominations", with import custom duties averaging over 25 percent . Intense political opposition to higher tariffs came from Southern Democrats and plantation owners in South Carolina who had little manufacturing industry and imported some products with high tariffs . They would have to pay more for imports . They claimed their economic interest was being unfairly injured . They attempted to "nullify" the federal tariff and spoke of secession from the Union (see the Nullification Crisis). President Andrew Jackson let it be known he would use the U.S. Army to enforce the law, and no state supported the South Carolina call for nullification . A compromise ended the crisis included a lowering of the average tariff rate over ten years to a rate of 15% to 20% . </P> <P> Tariffs soon became a major political issue as the Whigs (1832--1852) and (after 1854) the Republicans wanted to protect their mostly northern industries and constituents by voting for higher tariffs and the Southern Democrats, which had very little industry but imported many goods voted for lower tariffs . Each party as it came into power voted to raise or lower tariffs under the constraints that the Federal Government always needed a certain level of revenues . The United States public debt was paid off in 1834 and President Andrew Jackson, a strong Southern Democrat, oversaw the cutting of the tariff rates roughly in half and eliminating nearly all federal excise taxes in about 1835 . </P> <P> Henry Clay and his Whig Party, envisioning a rapid modernization based on highly productive factories, sought a high tariff . Their key argument was that startup factories, or "infant industries", would at first be less efficient than European (British) producers . Furthermore, American factory workers were paid higher wages than their European competitors . The arguments proved highly persuasive in industrial districts . Clay's position was adopted in the 1828 and 1832 Tariff Acts . The Nullification Crisis forced a partial abandonment of the Whig position . When the Whigs won victories in the 1840 and 1842 elections, taking control of Congress, they re-instituted higher tariffs with the Tariff of 1842 . In examining these debates Moore finds that they were not precursors to Civil War . Instead they looked backward and continued the old debate whether foreign trade policy should embrace free trade or protectionism . </P>

Who favored high tariffs during the pre civil war era