<P> Chunks in motor learning are identified by pauses between successive actions (Terrace, 2001). He also suggested that during the sequence performance stage (after learning), participants download list items as chunks during pauses . Terrace also argued for an operational definition of chunks suggesting a distinction between the notions of input and output chunks from the ideas of short - term and long - term memory . Input chunks reflect the limitation of working memory during the encoding of new information (how new information is stored in long - term memory), and how it is retrieved during subsequent recall . Output chunks reflect the organization of over-learned motor programs that are generated on - line in working memory . Sakai et al. (2003) showed that participants spontaneously organize a sequence into a number of chunks across few sets, and that these chunks were distinct among participants tested on the same sequence . Sakai et al. (2003) showed that performance of a shuffled sequence was poorer when the chunk patterns were disrupted than when the chunk patterns were preserved . Chunking patterns also seem to depend on the effectors used . </P> <P> This usage derives from Miller's (1956) idea of chunking as grouping, but the emphasis is now on long - term memory rather than only on short - term memory . A chunk can then be defined as "a collection of elements having strong associations with one another, but weak associations with elements within other chunks" (Gobet et al., 2001, p. 236). Chase and Simon (1973) and later Gobet, Retschitzki and de Voogt (2004) showed that chunking could explain several phenomena linked to expertise in chess . To be more specific, more skilled chess players have a larger chunk size . Several successful computational models of learning and expertise have been developed using this idea, such as EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) and CHREST (Chunk Hierarchy and REtrieval STructures). Chunking has also been used with models of language acquisition (Barnard, Lieven, & Tomasello, 2009). </P>

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