<P> The French iron industry lagged behind the United Kingdom and Belgium in the early 19th century, and after 1850 also lagged behind Germany and Luxembourg . Its industry comprised too many small, inefficient firms . 20th century growth was not robust, due more to traditional social and economic attitudes than to inherent geographic, population, or resource factors . Despite a high national income level, the French steel industry remained laggard . The industry was based on large supplies of coal and iron ore, and was dispersed across the country . The greatest output came in 1929, at 10.4 million metric tons . The industry suffered sharply during the Great Depression and the World War II . Prosperity returned by mid-1950s, but profits came largely from strong domestic demand rather than competitive capacity . Late modernization delayed the development of powerful unions and collective bargaining . </P> <P> In Italy a shortage of coal led the steel industry to specialize in the use of hydro - electrical energy, exploiting ideas pioneered by Ernesto Stassano from 1898 (Stassano furnace). Despite periods of innovation (1907--14), growth (1915--18), and consolidation (1918--22), early expectations were only partly realized . Steel output in the 1920s and 1930s averaged about 2.1 million metric tons . Per capita consumption was much lower than the average of Western Europe . Electrical processes were an important substitute, yet did not improve competitiveness or reduce prices . Instead, they reinforced the dualism of the sector and initiated a vicious circle that prevented market expansion . Italy modernized its industry in the 1950s and 1960s and it grew rapidly, becoming second only to West Germany in the 1970s . Strong labour unions kept employment levels high . Troubles multiplied after 1980, however, as foreign competition became stiffer . In 1980 the largest producer Nuova Italsider lost 746 billion lira in its inefficient operations . </P> <P> From 1875 to 1920 American steel production grew from 380,000 tons to 60 million tons annually, making the U.S. the world leader . The annual growth rates in steel 1870--1913 were 7.0% for the US; 1.0% for Britain; 6.0% for Germany; and 4.3% for France, Belgium and Russia, the other major producers . This explosive American growth rested on solid technological foundations, assisted by other factors, including African - American forced convict labor, the protective tariff and the continuous rapid expansion of urban infrastructures, office buildings, factories, railroads, bridges and other sectors that increasingly demanded steel . The use of steel in automobiles and household appliances came in the 20th century . </P> <P> Some key elements in the growth of steel production included the easy availability of iron ore, coal, and underpaid labor . Iron ore of fair quality was abundant in the eastern states, but the Lake Superior region contained huge deposits of exceedingly rich ore; the Marquette Iron Range was discovered in 1844; operations began in 1846 . Other ranges were opened by 1910, including the Menominee, Gogebic, Vermilion, Cuyuna, and, greatest of all, (in 1892) the Mesabi range in Minnesota . This iron ore was shipped through the Lakes to ports such as Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Erie and Buffalo for shipment by rail to the steel mills . Abundant coal was available in Pennsylvania and Ohio . Manpower was short . Few native Americans wanted to work in the mills, but immigrants from Britain and Germany (and later from Eastern Europe) arrived in great numbers . A range of industries came to be dependent on convict leasing for cheap, dependable labor . </P>

Who led the expansion of the steel industry
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