<P> A common industry view (unsupported by empirical evidence) is that comparative cost - effectiveness research is a form of price control which reduces returns to industry, and thus limits R&D expenditure, stifles future innovation and compromises new products access to markets . Some academics claim cost - effectiveness research is a valuable value - based measure of innovation which accords "truly significant" therapeutic advances (i.e. providing "health gain") higher prices than free market mechanisms . Such value - based pricing has been viewed as a means of indicating to industry the type of innovation that should be rewarded from the public purse . </P> <P> An Australian academic developed the case that national comparative cost - effectiveness analysis systems should be viewed as measuring "health innovation" as an evidence - based policy concept for valuing innovation distinct from valuing through competitive markets, a method which requires strong anti-trust laws to be effective, on the basis that both methods of assessing pharmaceutical innovations are mentioned in annex 2C. 1 of the Australia - United States Free Trade Agreement . </P> <P> Several indices attempt to measure innovation and rank entities based on these measures, such as: </P> <Ul> <Li> The Bloomberg Innovation Index </Li> <Li> The "Bogota Manual" similar to the Oslo Manual, is focused on Latin America and the Caribbean countries . </Li> <Li> The "Creative Class" developed by Richard Florida </Li> <Li> The EIU Innovation Ranking </Li> <Li> The Global Competitiveness Report </Li> <Li> The Global Innovation Index (GII), by INSEAD </Li> <Li> The Information Technology and Innovation Foundation (ITIF) Index </Li> <Li> Innovation 360 - From the World Bank . Aggregates innovation indicators (and more) from a number of different public sources </Li> <Li> The Innovation Capacity Index (ICI) published by a large number of international professors working in a collaborative fashion . The top scorers of ICI 2009--2010 were: 1 . Sweden 82.2; 2 . Finland 77.8; and 3 . United States 77.5 . </Li> <Li> The Innovation Index, developed by the Indiana Business Research Center, to measure innovation capacity at the county or regional level in the United States . </Li> <Li> The Innovation Union Scoreboard </Li> <Li> The innovationsindikator for Germany, developed by the Federation of German Industries (Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie) in 2005 </Li> <Li> The INSEAD Innovation Efficacy Index </Li> <Li> The International Innovation Index, produced jointly by The Boston Consulting Group, the National Association of Manufacturers and its nonpartisan research affiliate The Manufacturing Institute, is a worldwide index measuring the level of innovation in a country . NAM describes it as the "largest and most comprehensive global index of its kind". </Li> <Li> The Management Innovation Index - Model for Managing Intangibility of Organizational Creativity: Management Innovation Index </Li> <Li> The NYCEDC Innovation Index, by the New York City Economic Development Corporation, tracks New York City's "transformation into a center for high - tech innovation . It measures innovation in the City's growing science and technology industries and is designed to capture the effect of innovation on the City's economy ." </Li> <Li> The Oslo Manual is focused on North America, Europe, and other rich economies . </Li> <Li> The State Technology and Science Index, developed by the Milken Institute, is a U.S. - wide benchmark to measure the science and technology capabilities that furnish high paying jobs based around key components . </Li> <Li> The World Competitiveness Scoreboard </Li> </Ul>

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