<P> A unit load is either a single unit of an item, or multiple units so arranged or restricted that they can be handled as a single unit and maintain their integrity . Although granular, liquid, and gaseous materials can be transported in bulk, they can also be contained into unit loads using bags, drums, and cylinders . Advantages of unit loads are that more items can be handled at the same time (thereby reducing the number of trips required, and potentially reducing handling costs, loading and unloading times, and product damage) and that it enables the use of standardized material handling equipment . Disadvantages of unit loads include the negative impact of batching on production system performance, and the cost of returning empty containers / pallets to their point of origin . </P> <P> Unit loads can be used both for in - process handling and for distribution (receiving, storing, and shipping). Unit load design involves determining the type, size, weight, and configuration of the load; the equipment and method used to handle the load; and the methods of forming (or building) and breaking down the load . For in - process handling, unit loads should not be larger than the production batch size of parts in process . Large production batches (used to increase the utilization of bottleneck activities) can be split into smaller transfer batches for handling purposes, where each transfer batch contains one or more unit loads, and small unit loads can be combined into a larger transfer batch to allow more efficient transport . </P> <P> Selecting a unit load size for distribution can be difficult because containers / pallets are usually available only in standard sizes and configurations; truck trailers, rail boxcars, and airplane cargo bays are limited in width, length, and height; and the number of feasible container / pallet sizes for a load may be limited due to the existing warehouse layout and storage rack configurations and customer package / carton size and retail store shelf restrictions . Also, the practical size of a unit load may be limited by the equipment and aisle space available and the need for safe material handling . </P> <P> Manual handling refers to the use of a worker's hands to move individual containers by lifting, lowering, filling, emptying, or carrying them . It can expose workers to physical conditions that can lead to injuries that represent a large percentage of the over half a million cases of musculoskeletal disorders reported in the U.S. each year, and often involve strains and sprains to the lower back, shoulders, and upper limbs . Ergonomic improvements can be used to modify manual handling tasks to reduce injury . These improvements can include reconfiguring the task and using positioning equipment like lift / tilt / turn tables, hoists, balancers, and manipulators to reduce reaching and bending . The NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) 1991 Revised Lifting Equation can be used to evaluate manual lifting tasks . Under ideal circumstances, the maximum recommended weight for manual lifting to avoid back injuries is 51 lb (23.13 kg). Using the exact conditions of the lift (height, distance lifted, weight, position of weight relative to body, asymmetrical lifts, and objects that are difficult to grasp), six multipliers are used to reduce the maximum recommended weight for less than ideal lifting tasks . </P>

Three factors that determine transportation and materials handling requirements