<P> Such protections also apply to public colleges and universities; for example, student newspapers which have been established as forums for free expression have been granted broad protection by appeals courts . </P> <P> Publishing, gathering, or collecting national security information is not protected speech in the United States . Information related to "the national defense" is protected even though no harm to the national security is intended or is likely to be caused through its disclosure . Non-military information with the potential to cause serious damage to the national security is only protected from willful disclosure with the requisite intent or knowledge regarding the potential harm . The unauthorized creation, publication, sale, or transfer of photographs or sketches of vital defense installations or equipment as designated by the President is prohibited . The knowing and willful disclosure of certain classified information is prohibited . The unauthorized communication by anyone of "Restricted Data", or an attempt or conspiracy to communicate such data, is prohibited . It is prohibited for a person who learns of the identity of a covert agent through a "pattern of activities intended to identify and expose covert agents" to disclose the identity to any individual not authorized access to classified information, with reason to believe that such activities would impair U.S. foreign intelligence efforts . </P> <P> In addition to the criminal penalties, the use of employment contracts, loss of government employment, monetary penalties, non-disclosure agreements, forfeiture of property, injunctions, revocation of passports, and prior restraint are used to deter such speech . </P> <P> The Voluntary Tender Act of 1917 gave the Commissioner of Patents the authority to withhold certification from inventions that might harm U.S. national security, and to turn the invention over to the United States government for its own use . It was replaced in 1951 with the Invention Secrecy Act which prevented inventors from publishing inventions or sharing the information . Both attached criminal penalties to subjected inventors . The United States was under a declared state of emergency from 1950--1974, after which peacetime secrecy orders were available . </P>

Free speech and press are vital to the u.s. republic because