<P> A Pedigree results in the presentation of family information in the form of an easily readable chart . Pedigrees use a standardized set of symbols, squares represent males and circles represent females . Pedigree construction is a family history, and details about an earlier generation may be uncertain as memories fade . If the sex of the person is unknown a diamond is used . Someone with the phenotype in question is represented by a filled - in (darker) symbol . Heterozygotes, when identifiable, are indicated by a shade dot inside a symbol or a half - filled symbol . </P> <P> Relationships in a pedigree are shown as a series of lines . Parents are connected by a horizontal line and a vertical line leads to their offspring . The offspring are connected by a horizontal sibship line and listed in birth order from left to right . If the offspring are twins then they will be connected by a triangle . If an offspring dies then its symbol will be crossed by a line . If the offspring is still born or aborted it is represented by a small triangle . </P> <P> Each generation is identified by a Roman numeral (I, II, III, and so on), and each individual within the same generation is identified by an Arabic number (1, 2, 3, and so on). Analysis of the pedigree using the principles of Mendelian inheritance can determine whether a trait has a dominant or recessive pattern of inheritance . Pedigrees are often constructed after a family member afflicted with a genetic disorder has been identified . This individual, known as the proband, is indicated on the pedigree by an arrow . </P> <P> In England and Wales pedigrees are officially recorded in the College of Arms, which has records going back to the Middle Ages, including pedigrees collected during roving inquiries by its heralds during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries . The purpose of these heraldic visitations was to register and regulate the use of coats of arms . Those who claimed the right to bear arms had to provide proof either of a grant of arms to them by the College, or of descent from an ancestor entitled to arms . It was for this reason that pedigrees were recorded by the visitations . Pedigrees continue to be registered at the College of Arms and kept up to date on a voluntary basis but they are not accessible to the general public without payment of a fee . </P>

What do the following symbols mean in a pedigree why are pedigrees useful