<P> Zwingli and John Oecolampadius became embroiled in conflict over the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist with Martin Luther, leading to a division between Lutheran and Reformed Protestants . Several theologians succeeded Zwingli, the best known of which is John Calvin in Geneva, but other reformers like John Oecolampadius, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Wolfgang Musculus were also very influential in the development of Reformed theology . </P> <P> Reformed faith spread throughout Europe in the 16th century, with different character in different places . Calvinism was the dominant form of Protestantism in France . After a period of struggle Calvinists were officially tolerated there . Under the leadership of John Knox the Church of Scotland, which was Reformed, became the established church in Scotland . In the Netherlands, Calvinism also became the official established religion following a period of persecution . During the Reformation, Calvinism was the primary Protestant faith in Belgium but was eradicated in favor of the Counter-Reformation . Germany remained predominantly Lutheran during the 16th century, but Reformed worship was promoted intermittently by rulers in Electoral Palatinate, Margraviate of Brandenburg, and other German states . Reformed ideas also influenced Protestants in Eastern Europe, especially Hungary and Romania . The reform of the Church of England was also influenced by Reformed theologians, and remained so throughout the 16th century . </P> <P> Huldrych Zwingli, whose theology is considered the first expression of Reformed theology was appointed to ministry in Zürich, Switzerland, in 1519 . He was influenced by Renaissance humanist Desiderius Erasmus, which led him to study the New Testament and the early Church Fathers as well as to preach from the Bible . Zwingli was also aware of and influenced by the Wittenberg reformer Martin Luther, but he developed his theology independently and differed with him in several ways . Zwingli opposed any religious practice for which he could find no scriptural justification, such as the use of images, organs, and singing in worship while Luther actively opposed the destruction of images in churches . Zwingli's emphasis on strict adherence to God's command as found in his word also lead to greater moral activism in Zwinglian Reformation movements than in Lutheran ones . </P> <P> Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, John Oecolampadius, and Guillaume Farel were also influential figures in the development of Reformed theology . These reformers came from diverse academic backgrounds, but later distinctives of Reformed theology can already be detected in their thought, especially the priority of scripture as a source of authority . Scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal view of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace . Another Reformed distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the bodily presence of Christ in the Lord's supper . Each of these theologians also understood salvation to be by grace alone, and affirmed a doctrine of particular election (the teaching that some people are chosen by God for salvation). Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, and to a larger extent later Reformed theologians . The doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther . </P>

Which cities were the center of calvinism and lutheranism