<P> In statistics, sampling error is incurred when the statistical characteristics of a population are estimated from a subset, or sample, of that population . Since the sample does not include all members of the population, statistics on the sample, such as means and quantiles, generally differ from the characteristics of the entire population, which are known as parameters . For example, if one measures the height of a thousand individuals from a country of one million, the average height of the thousand is typically not the same as the average height of all one million people in the country . Since sampling is typically done to determine the characteristics of a whole population, the difference between the sample and population values is considered an error . Exact measurement of sampling error is generally not feasible since the true population values are unknown; however, sampling error can often be estimated by probabilistic modeling of the sample . </P> <P> In statistics, sampling error is the error caused by observing a sample instead of the whole population . The sampling error is the difference between a sample statistic used to estimate a population parameter and the actual but unknown value of the parameter . An estimate of a quantity of interest, such as an average or percentage, will generally be subject to sample - to - sample variation . These variations in the possible sample values of a statistic can theoretically be expressed as sampling errors, although in practice the exact sampling error is typically unknown . Sampling error also refers more broadly to this phenomenon of random sampling variation . </P> <P> Random sampling, and its derived terms such as sampling error, imply specific procedures for gathering and analyzing data that are rigorously applied as a method for arriving at results considered representative of a given population as a whole . Despite a common misunderstanding, "random" does not mean the same thing as "chance" as this idea is often used in describing situations of uncertainty, nor is it the same as projections based on an assessed probability or frequency . Sampling always refers to a procedure of gathering data from a small aggregation of individuals that is purportedly representative of a larger grouping which must in principle be capable of being measured as a totality . Random sampling is used precisely to ensure a truly representative sample from which to draw conclusions, in which the same results would be arrived at if one had included the entirety of the population instead . Random sampling (and sampling error) can only be used to gather information about a single defined point in time . If additional data is gathered (other things remaining constant) then comparison across time periods may be possible . However, this comparison is distinct from any sampling itself . As a method for gathering data within the field of statistics, random sampling is recognized as clearly distinct from the causal process that one is trying to measure . The conducting of research itself may lead to certain outcomes affecting the researched group, but this effect is not what is called sampling error . Sampling error always refers to the recognized limitations of any supposedly representative sample population in reflecting the larger totality, and the error refers only to the discrepancy that may result from judging the whole on the basis of a much smaller number . This is only an "error" in the sense that it would automatically be corrected if the totality were itself assessed . The term has no real meaning outside of statistics . </P>

Which of the following types of samples is subject to the greatest sampling error