<P> Rodents have been shown to demonstrate empathy for cagemates (but not strangers) in pain . One of the most widely read studies on the evolution of empathy, which discusses a neural perception - action mechanism (PAM), is the one by Stephanie Preston and de Waal . This review postulates a bottom - up model of empathy that ties together all levels, from state matching to perspective - taking . For University of Chicago neurobiologist Jean Decety, (empathy) is not specific to humans . He argues that there is strong evidence that empathy has deep evolutionary, biochemical, and neurological underpinnings, and that even the most advanced forms of empathy in humans are built on more basic forms and remain connected to core mechanisms associated with affective communication, social attachment, and parental care . Core neural circuits that are involved in empathy and caring include the brainstem, the amygdala, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, insula and orbitofrontal cortex . </P> <P> Since all definitions of empathy involves an element of for others, all distinctions between egoism and empathy fail at least for beings lacking self - awareness . Since the first mammals lacked a self - aware distinction between self and other, as shown by most mammals failing at mirror tests, the first mammals or anything more evolutionarily primitive than them cannot have had a context of default egoism requiring an empathy mechanism to be transcended . However, there are numerous examples in artificial intelligence research showing that simple reactions can carry out de facto functions the agents have no concept of, so this does not contradict evolutionary explanations of parental care . However, such mechanisms would be unadapted to self - other distinction and beings already dependent on some form of behavior benefitting each other or their offspring would never be able to evolve a form of self - other distinction that necessitated evolution of specialized non-preevolved and non-preevolvable mechanisms for retaining empathic behavior in the presence of self - other distinction, and so a fundamental neurological distinction between egoism and empathy cannot exist in any species . </P> <P> Heinz Kohut is the main introducer of the principle of empathy in psychoanalysis . His principle applies to the method of gathering unconscious material . The possibility of not applying the principle is granted in the cure, for instance when you must reckon with another principle, that of reality . </P> <P> In evolutionary psychology, attempts at explaining pro-social behavior often mention the presence of empathy in the individual as a possible variable . While exact motives behind complex social behaviors are difficult to distinguish, the "ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and experience events and emotions the way that person experienced them" is the definitive factor for truly altruistic behavior according to Batson's empathy - altruism hypothesis . If empathy is not felt, social exchange (what's in it for me?) supersedes pure altruism, but if empathy is felt, an individual will help by actions or by word, regardless of whether it is in their self - interest to do so and even if the costs outweigh potential rewards . </P>

When is the capacity for empathy first observed