<P> American rule of ceded Spanish territory was not uncontested . The Philippine Revolution had begun in August 1896 against Spain, and after the defeat of Spain in the Battle of Manila Bay, began again in earnest, culminating in the Philippine Declaration of Independence and the establishment of the First Philippine Republic . The Philippine--American War ensued, with extensive damage and death, ultimately resulting in the defeat of the Philippine Republic . According to scholars such as Gavan McCormack and E. San Juan, the American counterinsurgency resulted in genocide . </P> <P> The maximum geographical extension of American direct political and military control happened in the aftermath of World War II, in the period after the surrender and occupations of Germany and Austria in May and later Japan and Korea in September 1945 and before the independence of the Philippines in July 1946 . </P> <P> Stuart Creighton Miller says that the public's sense of innocence about Realpolitik impairs popular recognition of U.S. imperial conduct . The resistance to actively occupying foreign territory has led to policies of exerting influence via other means, including governing other countries via surrogates or puppet regimes, where domestically unpopular governments survive only through U.S. support . </P> <P> The Philippines is sometimes cited as an example . After Philippine independence, the US continued to direct the country through Central Intelligence Agency operatives like Edward Lansdale . As Raymond Bonner and other historians note, Lansdale controlled the career of President Ramon Magsaysay, going so far as to physically beat him when the Philippine leader attempted to reject a speech the CIA had written for him . American agents also drugged sitting President Elpidio Quirino and prepared to assassinate Senator Claro Recto . Prominent Filipino historian Roland G. Simbulan has called the CIA "US imperialism's clandestine apparatus in the Philippines ." </P>

1. how imperialism shaped both us and global development