<P> Domain - general views of vocabulary development argue that children do not need principles or constraints in order to successfully develop word - world mappings . Instead, word learning can be accounted for through general learning mechanisms such as salience, association, and frequency . Children are thought to notice the objects, actions, or events that are most salient in context, and then to associate them with the words that are most frequently used in their presence . Additionally, research on word learning suggests that fast mapping, the rapid learning that children display after a single exposure to new information, is not specific to word learning . Children can also successfully fast map when exposed to a novel fact, remembering both words and facts after a time delay . </P> <P> Domain - general views have been criticized for not fully explaining how children manage to avoid mapping errors when there are numerous possible referents to which objects, actions, or events might point . For instance, if biases are not present from birth, why do infants assume that labels refer to whole objects, instead of salient parts of these objects? However, domain - general perspectives do not dismiss the notion of biases . Rather, they suggest biases develop through learning strategies instead of existing as built - in constraints . For instance, the whole object bias could be explained as a strategy that humans use to reason about the world; perhaps we are prone to thinking about our environment in terms of whole objects, and this strategy is not specific to the language domain . Additionally, children may be exposed to cues associated with categorization by shape early in the word learning process, which would draw their attention to shape when presented with novel objects and labels . Ordinary learning could, then, lead to a shape bias . </P> <P> Social pragmatic theories, also in contrast to the constraints view, focus on the social context in which the infant is embedded . According to this approach, environmental input removes the ambiguity of the word learning situation . Cues such as the caregiver's gaze, body language, gesture, and smile help infants to understand the meanings of words . Social pragmatic theories stress the role of the caregiver in talking about objects, actions, or events that the infant is already focused - in upon . </P> <P> Joint attention is an important mechanism through which children learn to map words - to - world, and vice versa . Adults commonly make an attempt to establish joint attention with a child before they convey something to the child . Joint attention is often accompanied by physical co-presence, since children are often focused on what is in their immediate environment . As well, conversational co-presence is likely to occur; the caregiver and child typically talk together about whatever is taking place at their locus of joint attention . Social pragmatic perspectives often present children as covariation detectors, who simply associate the words that they hear with whatever they are attending to in the world at the same time . The co-variation detection model of joint attention seems problematic when we consider that many caregiver utterances do not refer to things that occupy the immediate attentional focus of infants . For instance, caregivers among the Kaluli, a group of indigenous peoples living in New Guinea, rarely provide labels in the context of their referents . While the covariation detection model emphasizes the caregiver's role in the meaning - making process, some theorists argue that infants also play an important role in their own word learning, actively avoiding mapping errors . When infants are in situations where their own attentional focus differs from that of a speaker, they seek out information about the speaker's focus, and then use that information to establish correct word - referent mappings . Joint attention can be created through infant agency, in an attempt to gather information about a speaker's intent . </P>

Which of the following words would more likely be produced by a chinese baby than a u.s. baby