<P> Marxist Art History was refined in the department of Art History at UCLA with scholars such as T.J. Clark, O.K. Werckmeister, David Kunzle, Theodor W. Adorno, and Max Horkheimer . T.J. Clark was the first art historian writing from a Marxist perspective to abandon vulgar Marxism . He wrote Marxist art histories of several impressionist and realist artists, including Gustave Courbet and Édouard Manet . These books focused closely on the political and economic climates in which the art was created . </P> <P> Linda Nochlin's essay "Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?" helped to ignite feminist art history during the 1970s and remains one of the most widely read essays about female artists . This was then followed by a 1972 College Art Association Panel, chaired by Nochlin, entitled "Eroticism and the Image of Woman in Nineteenth - Century Art". Within a decade, scores of papers, articles, and essays sustained a growing momentum, fueled by the Second - wave feminist movement, of critical discourse surrounding women's interactions with the arts as both artists and subjects . In her pioneering essay, Nochlin applies a feminist critical framework to show systematic exclusion of women from art training, arguing that exclusion from practicing art as well as the canonical history of art was the consequence of cultural conditions which curtailed and restricted women from art producing fields . The few who did succeed were treated as anomalies and did not provide a model for subsequent success . Griselda Pollock is another prominent feminist art historian, whose use of psychoanalytic theory is described above . </P> <P> While feminist art history can focus on any time period and location, much attention has been given to the Modern era . Some of this scholarship centers on the feminist art movement, which referred specifically to the experience of women . Often, feminist art history offers a critical "re-reading" of the Western art canon, such as Carol Duncan's re-interpretation of Les Demoiselles d'Avignon . Two pioneers of the field are Mary Garrard and Norma Broude . Their anthologies Feminism and Art History: Questioning the Litany, The Expanding Discourse: Feminism and Art History, and Reclaiming Feminist Agency: Feminist Art History After Postmodernism are substantial efforts to bring feminist perspectives into the discourse of art history . The pair also co-founded the Feminist Art History Conference . </P> <P> As opposed to iconography which seeks to identify meaning, semiotics is concerned with how meaning is created . Roland Barthes's connoted and denoted meanings are paramount to this examination . In any particular work of art, an interpretation depends on the identification of denoted meaning--the recognition of a visual sign, and the connoted meaning--the instant cultural associations that come with recognition . The main concern of the semiotic art historian is to come up with ways to navigate and interpret connoted meaning . </P>

Which of the following are the fundamental origins of culture