<P> Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d . 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège, contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary Gloucester Candlestick . Large illuminated bibles and psalters were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall - painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a Last Judgement on the west wall, a Christ in Majesty at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at Saint - Savin - sur - Gartempe, on the barrel - vaulted roof . </P> <P> From the early 12th century, French builders developed the Gothic style, marked by the use of rib vaults, pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained glass windows . It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe . Classic examples of Gothic architecture include Chartres Cathedral and Reims Cathedral in France as well as Salisbury Cathedral in England . Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall - paintings, now almost all lost . </P> <P> During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to Janetta Benton "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops", and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay - people . Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses . In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d . 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco . Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming - pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived . </P> <P> Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life . Cluny Abbey, founded in the Mâcon region of France in 909, was established as part of the Cluniac Reforms, a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear . Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour . It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords . </P>

How did the middle ages change the world