<P> In mathematics, orthogonal coordinates are defined as a set of d coordinates q = (q, q,..., q) in which the coordinate surfaces all meet at right angles (note: superscripts are indices, not exponents). A coordinate surface for a particular coordinate q is the curve, surface, or hypersurface on which q is a constant . For example, the three - dimensional Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) is an orthogonal coordinate system, since its coordinate surfaces x = constant, y = constant, and z = constant are planes that meet at right angles to one another, i.e., are perpendicular . Orthogonal coordinates are a special but extremely common case of curvilinear coordinates . </P> <P> While vector operations and physical laws are normally easiest to derive in Cartesian coordinates, non-Cartesian orthogonal coordinates are often used instead for the solution of various problems, especially boundary value problems, such as those arising in field theories of quantum mechanics, fluid flow, electrodynamics and the diffusion of chemical species or heat . </P> <P> The chief advantage of non-Cartesian coordinates is that they can be chosen to match the symmetry of the problem . For example, the pressure wave due to an explosion far from the ground (or other barriers) depends on 3D space in Cartesian coordinates, however the pressure predominantly moves away from the center, so that in spherical coordinates the problem becomes very nearly one - dimensional (since the pressure wave dominantly depends only on time and the distance from the center). Another example is (slow) fluid in a straight circular pipe: in Cartesian coordinates, one has to solve a (difficult) two dimensional boundary value problem involving a partial differential equation, but in cylindrical coordinates the problem becomes one - dimensional with an ordinary differential equation instead of a partial differential equation . </P> <P> The reason to prefer orthogonal coordinates instead of general curvilinear coordinates is simplicity: many complications arise when coordinates are not orthogonal . For example, in orthogonal coordinates many problems may be solved by separation of variables . Separation of variables is a mathematical technique that converts a complex d - dimensional problem into d one - dimensional problems that can be solved in terms of known functions . Many equations can be reduced to Laplace's equation or the Helmholtz equation . Laplace's equation is separable in 13 orthogonal coordinate systems, and the Helmholtz equation is separable in 11 orthogonal coordinate systems . </P>

Why are coordinate systems useful when formulating a solution to a problem
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