<P> John Willock, who had been exiled to Emden, and John Knox, who had spent five years exiled in Geneva, were the most influential figures of the Scottish Reformation . Knox preached to Scottish noblemen from 1555--56, though he did not encourage the establishment of independent churches as was done in France . In 1557 a group of noblemen known as the Lords of the Congregation swore an oath, following a Scottish custom, to promote Protestant reforms in churches . Knox and Willock encouraged radical militant action even on the part of independent laypeople in areas where Catholic practices were re-instituted . In 1560 the Scottish Parliament adopted the broadly Reformed Scots Confession and instituted the Church of Scotland along Reformed lines, though bishops were retained within a presbyterial system . Despite the success of the Reformed in Scotland many people retained Catholic practices such as holy days and pilgrimages and the majority of parishes did not have qualified Reformed ministers by the end of the century . </P> <P> The Netherlands was affected by Reformation ideas early on due to linguistic and commercial ties with Germany . Though early Protestantism in the Netherlands was not exclusively Reformed in nature, and many early Protestant churches sought to allow both Lutheran and Reformed adherents within the same congregations, the influence of refugee centers in Emden and England lead to a decidedly Reformed orientation to these churches . A mass outbreak of iconoclasm in 1566 (known as the Beeldenstorm) prompted by popular open - air Protestant preaching lead to temporary toleration of Protestant preaching, and gradually administration of the sacraments, by magistrates in many Dutch cities . Military action initiated by Governor of the Netherlands Margaret of Parma later that year intended as punishment for the iconoclastic outbreaks brought an end to Reformed worship . Starting in 1572, many Dutch cities invited or allowed the invasion of exiled Netherlandish privateers known as Sea Beggars because they were dissatisfied with the overbearing rule of the Spanish "iron duke" of Alva, and Reformed worship was reinstated either immediately or gradually . The Dutch Reformed Church became the legally privileged religion in most of the region, though Catholicism and other Protestant sects were tolerated and a minority of the population became full members of the Reformed church . </P> <P> There was frequent interchange between Swiss and German Protestants early in the Reformation, and Bucer's Strasbourg had some Reformed characteristics, but Germany remained firmly Lutheran and anti-Calvinist through 1560 . Following the death of Lutheran Wittenberg reformer Philipp Melanchthon in 1560, Frederick III, Elector Palatine began to promote the Reformed faith in his own realm . He invited two students of Calvin, Zacharias Ursinus and Kaspar Olevianus, to the university city of Heidelberg in 1561 . The two men co-operated in writing the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563 to replace the conflicting catechisms currently circulating in the realm . Despite opposition from the Holy Roman Emperor and other German princes, Frederick continued to institute Reformed worship in the Palatinate . In 1566 he was called to appear at the Diet of Augsburg to account for his violation of the Treaty of Augsburg . His testimony was so impressive that no action was taken against him, leaving the Palatinate free to continue in a Reformed direction . Frederick died in 1576 and was succeeded by his son Louis VI, who was not friendly to the Reformed faith . 600 Reformed professors and ministers were expelled . These refugees scattered to various cities . In 1583, John Casimir restored the Reformed faith in the Palatinate, and this policy was continued by his successor Frederick IV . Some other German states and cities also adopted the Heidelberg Catechism and the Reformed faith . </P> <P> Polish priests began instituting reforms influenced by Calvin starting in the 1550s . In 1556 a diet at Piotrków officially instituted several Protestant reforms . Jan Łaski returned to Poland and unsuccessfully attempted to unite the Reformed with the Polish Brethren and Lutherans . In 1575 King Stephen Báthory abandoned Protestantism, leading to the virtual extinction of the Polish Reformed Church . In Bohemia, Reformed ideas began to influence the Unity of the Brethren from the 1540s through Czech students at German and Swiss universities . Emperor Maximilian II tolerated Lutheran and Reformed worship in Bohemia through 1600, and many Bohemian nobles established Reformed worship on their estates . The influence of Calvinism in Swiss and German schools also affected Hungary and Transylvania, with the establishment of the Reformed Church of Hungary in 1576 . </P>

Which city became the center of the calvinist faith
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