<P> Getting the data across a network is only part of the problem for a protocol . The data received has to be evaluated in the context of the progress of the conversation, a protocol therefore must include rules describing the context . These kind of rules are said to express the syntax of the communication . Other rules determine whether the data is meaningful for the context in which the exchange takes place . These kind of rules are said to express the semantics of the communication . </P> <P> Messages are sent and received on communicating systems to establish communication . Protocols should therefore specify rules governing the transmission . In general, much of the following should be addressed: </P> <Dl> <Dt> Data formats for data exchange </Dt> <Dd> Digital message bitstrings are exchanged . The bitstrings are divided in fields and each field carries information relevant to the protocol . Conceptually the bitstring is divided into two parts called the header and the payload . The actual message is carried in the payload . The header area contains the fields with relevance to the operation of the protocol . Bitstrings longer than the maximum transmission unit (MTU) are divided in pieces of appropriate size . </Dd> <Dt> Address formats for data exchange </Dt> <Dd> Addresses are used to identify both the sender and the intended receiver (s). The addresses are carried in the header area of the bitstrings, allowing the receivers to determine whether the bitstrings are of interest and should be processed or should be ignored . A connection between a sender and a receiver can be identified using an address pair (sender address, receiver address). Usually some address values have special meanings . An all - 1s address could be taken to mean an addressing of all stations on the network, so sending to this address would result in a broadcast on the local network . The rules describing the meanings of the address value are collectively called an addressing scheme . </Dd> <Dt> Address mapping </Dt> <Dd> Sometimes protocols need to map addresses of one scheme on addresses of another scheme . For instance to translate a logical IP address specified by the application to an Ethernet MAC address . This is referred to as address mapping . </Dd> <Dt> Routing </Dt> <Dd> When systems are not directly connected, intermediary systems along the route to the intended receiver (s) need to forward messages on behalf of the sender . On the Internet, the networks are connected using routers . The interconnection of networks through routers is called internetworking . </Dd> <Dt> Detection of transmission errors </Dt> <Dd> Error detection is necessary on networks where data corruption is possible . In a common approach, CRCs of the data area are added to the end of packets, making it possible for the receiver to detect differences caused by corruption . The receiver rejects the packets on CRC differences and arranges somehow for retransmission . </Dd> <Dt> Acknowledgements </Dt> <Dd> Acknowledgement of correct reception of packets is required for connection - oriented communication . Acknowledgements are sent from receivers back to their respective senders . </Dd> <Dt> Loss of information - timeouts and retries </Dt> <Dd> Packets may be lost on the network or be delayed in transit . To cope with this, under some protocols, a sender may expect an acknowledgement of correct reception from the receiver within a certain amount of time . Thus, on timeouts, the sender may need to retransmit the information . In case of a permanently broken link, the retransmission has no effect so the number of retransmissions is limited . Exceeding the retry limit is considered an error . </Dd> <Dt> Direction of information flow </Dt> <Dd> Direction needs to be addressed if transmissions can only occur in one direction at a time as on half - duplex links or from one sender at time as on a shared medium . This is known as media access control . Arrangements have to be made to accommodate the case of collision or contention where two parties respectively simultaneously transmit or wish to transmit . </Dd> <Dt> Sequence control </Dt> <Dd> If long bitstrings are divided in pieces and then sent on the network individually, the pieces may get lost or delayed or, on some types of networks, take different routes to their destination . As a result, pieces may arrive out of sequence . Retransmissions can result in duplicate pieces . By marking the pieces with sequence information at the sender, the receiver can determine what was lost or duplicated, ask for necessary retransmissions and reassemble the original message . </Dd> <Dt> Flow control </Dt> <Dd> Flow control is needed when the sender transmits faster than the receiver or intermediate network equipment can process the transmissions . Flow control can be implemented by messaging from receiver to sender . </Dd> </Dl> <Dt> Data formats for data exchange </Dt>

What is a network protocol what are the roles of ethernet tcp/ip and wireless protocols