<P> The study of consumer behaviour is concerned with all aspects of purchasing behaviour - from pre-purchase activities through to post-purchase consumption, evaluation and disposal activities . It is also concerned with all persons involved, either directly or indirectly, in purchasing decisions and consumption activities including brand - influencers and opinion leaders . Research has shown that consumer behaviour is difficult to predict, even for experts in the field . However, new research methods such as ethnography and consumer neuroscience are shedding new light on how consumers make decisions . </P> <P> Customer relationship management (CRM) databases have become an asset for the analysis of customer behaviour . The voluminous data produced by these databases enables detailed examination of behavioural factors that contribute to customer re-purchase intentions, consumer retention, loyalty and other behavioural intentions such as the willingness to provide positive referrals, become brand advocates or engage in customer citizenship activities . Databases also assist in market segmentation, especially behavioural segmentation such as developing loyalty segments, which can be used to develop tightly targeted, customized marketing strategies on a one - to - one basis . (Also see relationship marketing) </P> <P> See: History of marketing thought </P> <P> In the 1940s and 50s, marketing was dominated by the so - called classical schools of thought which were highly descriptive and relied heavily on case study approaches with only occasional use of interview methods . At the end of the 1950s, two important reports criticised marketing for its lack of methodological rigor, especially the failure to adopt mathematically - oriented behavioural science research methods . The stage was set for marketing to become more inter-disciplinary by adopting a consumer - behaviourist perspective . </P>

List a couple general characteristics of higher order consumers and list a few examples