<P> Critics of this theory claim it is dependent on complex social context (which is responsible for the creation of dissonance), but research has shown the same effects in children (who understand less about social context and therefore are less likely to be influenced by it) and even in pigeons . Alessandri, Darcheville & Zentall (2008) argue that the cause for these findings, both in humans and animals, is the contrast effect . According to this theory, the preference is a result of the difference between the reward and the situation that leads to it . When the preliminary situation is unpleasant or strenuous, the difference between it and the reward that follows is great . When the preliminary situation is not especially unpleasant or strenuous, the difference between it and the reward is smaller . The reward that has the larger difference from its preliminary situation will be preferred since it is experienced as more positive . </P> <P> In the context of hazing and group initiation rituals, there is support for the reward explanation since group identity among initiates increases as feelings of being rewarded increase . Another alternative explanation is that hazing or initiation rituals increase physiological responses, which then cause an increase in affiliation among initiates . Alternatively, hazing and initiation effects have been associated with Bowlby's attachment theory . </P>

Hazing rituals make use of the idea of ____.​