<P> The main offensive weapon used was a 2.4--4.5 - metre (7.9--14.8 ft) long and 2.5 - centimetre (1 in) in diameter spear called a doru, or dory . It was held with the right hand, with the left hand holding the hoplite's shield . Soldiers usually held their spears in an underhand position when approaching but once they came into close contact with their opponents, they were held in an overhand position ready to strike . The spearhead was usually a curved leaf shape, while the rear of the spear had a spike called a sauroter ("lizard - killer") which was used to stand the spear in the ground (hence the name). It was also used as a secondary weapon if the main shaft snapped, or for the rear ranks to finish off fallen opponents as the phalanx advanced over them . In addition to being used as a secondary weapon, the sauroter also doubled to balance the spear, but not for throwing purposes . It is a matter of contention, among historians, whether the hoplite used the spear overarm or underarm . Held underarm, the thrusts would have been less powerful but under more control, and vice versa . It seems likely that both motions were used, depending on the situation . If attack was called for, an overarm motion was more likely to break through an opponent's defence . The upward thrust is more easily deflected by armour due to its lesser leverage . However, when defending, an underarm carry absorbed more shock and could be' couched' under the shoulder for maximum stability . It should also be said that an overarm motion would allow more effective combination of the aspis and doru if the shield wall had broken down, while the underarm motion would be more effective when the shield had to be interlocked with those of one's neighbours in the battle - line . Hoplites in the rows behind the lead would almost certainly have made overarm thrusts . The rear ranks held their spears underarm, and raised their shields upwards at increasing angles . This was an effective defence against missiles, deflecting their force . </P> <P> Hoplites also carried a sword, mostly a short sword called a xiphos, but later also longer and heavier types . The short sword was a secondary weapon, used if or when their spears were broken or lost, or if the phalanx broke rank . The xiphos usually had a blade around 60 centimetres (24 in) long; however, those used by the Spartans were often only 30--45 centimetres long . This very short xiphos would be very advantageous in the press that occurred when two lines of hoplites met, capable of being thrust through gaps in the shieldwall into an enemy's unprotected groin or throat, while there was no room to swing a longer sword . Such a small weapon would be particularly useful after many hoplites had started to abandon body armour during the Peloponnesian War . Hoplites could also alternatively carry the kopis, a heavy knife with a forward - curving blade . </P> <P> For more information on this topic: Phalanx </P> <P> Dark age warfare transitioned into hoplite warfare in the 8th century BC . Historians and researchers have debated the reason and speed of the transition for centuries . So far 3 popular theories exist: </P>

The hoplite warfare helped promote which political innovation