<P> The DESS was created in 1975 for students who completed four - year degrees . Intended as a doctorate with a more practical approach than research, it included the production of a 120 - page paper which was defended to a jury of three international specialists in the field . The mini-thesis was kept in the libraries of the university issuing the DESS, unlike a PhD dissertation (distributed by its author to every French university library). </P> <P> Higher education in France is also provided by non-university institutions dedicated to specific subjects . The Diplôme d'ingénieur (engineering diploma) is awarded to students after five years of study in state - recognized Écoles d'ingénieurs, particularly the Grandes Écoles such as Mines, Centrale and ENAC . </P> <P> Although the baccalauréat and doctorat are unchanged in the Bologna system (known in France as LMD reform), the DEUG and licence have been merged into a three - year Licence . The Maîtrise, DESS and DEA have been combined into a two - year master's degree, which can be work - (master professionnel) or research - oriented (master recherche). The Diplôme d'ingénieur degree is still separate from a university degree, but holders may legally claim a master's degree as well . </P> <P> Strikes occurred in 2002 and 2003 and 2007 protesting LMD reform, focusing more on under - funding of French universities since May 1968 than on the Bologna Process . Although the two major student organisations object to some aspects of its application to the French system, they generally welcome the European process . </P>

Who adopted the european model of medical education and when did they adopt it