<P> Governor Orval Eugene Faubus (Democrat) of Arkansas used the Arkansas National Guard to prevent school integration at Little Rock Central High School in 1957 . President Eisenhower (Republican) nationalized state forces and sent in the US Army to enforce federal court orders . Governors Ross Barnett of Mississippi and George Wallace of Alabama physically blocked school doorways at their respective states' universities . Birmingham's public safety commissioner Eugene T. "Bull" Connor advocated violence against freedom riders and ordered fire hoses and police dogs turned on demonstrators during the 1963 Birmingham Children's Crusade . Sheriff Jim Clark of Dallas County, Alabama, loosed his deputies during the "Bloody Sunday" event of the Selma to Montgomery march, injuring many of the marchers and personally menacing other protesters . Police all across the South arrested civil rights activists on trumped - up charges . </P> <P> Although they had white supporters and sympathizers, the Civil Rights Movement was designed, led, organized, and manned by African - Americans, who placed themselves and their families on the front lines in the struggle for freedom . Their heroism was brought home to every American through newspaper, and later, television reports as their peaceful marches and demonstrations were violently attacked by law enforcement . Officers used batons, bullwhips, fire hoses, police dogs, and mass arrests to intimidate the protesters . The second characteristic of the movement is that it was not monolithic, led by one or two men . Rather it was a dispersed, grass - roots campaign that attacked segregation in many different places using many different tactics . While some groups and individuals within the civil rights movement--such as Malcolm X--advocated Black Power, black separatism, or even armed resistance, the majority of participants remained committed to the principles of nonviolence, a deliberate decision by an oppressed minority to abstain from violence for political gain . Using nonviolent strategies, civil rights activists took advantage of emerging national network - news reporting, especially television, to capture national attention . </P> <P> The leadership role of black churches in the movement was a natural extension of their structure and function . They offered members an opportunity to exercise roles denied them in society . Throughout history, the black church served as a place of worship and also as a base for powerful ministers, such as Congressman Adam Clayton Powell in New York City . The most prominent clergyman in the Civil Rights Movement was Martin Luther King, Jr . Time magazine's 1963 "Man of the Year" showed tireless personal commitment to black freedom and his strong leadership won him worldwide acclaim and the Nobel Peace Prize . </P> <P> Students and seminarians in both the South and the North played key roles in every phase of the movement . Church and student - led movements, such as the Nashville Student Movement, developed their own organizational and sustaining structures . The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), founded in 1957, coordinated and raised funds, mostly from northern sources, for local protests and for the training of black leaders . The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, or SNCC, founded in 1957, developed the "jail - no - bail" strategy . SNCC's role was to develop and link sit - in campaigns and to help organize freedom rides, voter registration drives, and other protest activities . These three new groups often joined forces with existing organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), founded in 1909, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), founded in 1942, and the National Urban League . The NAACP and its Director, Roy Wilkins, provided legal counsel for jailed demonstrators, helped raise bail, and continued to test segregation and discrimination in the courts as it had been doing for half a century . CORE initiated the 1961 Freedom Rides which involved many SNCC members, and CORE's leader James Farmer later became executive secretary of SNCC . The administration of President John F. Kennedy supported enforcement of desegregation in schools and public facilities . Attorney General Robert Kennedy brought more than 50 lawsuits in four states to secure black Americans' right to vote . However, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, concerned about possible communist influence in the civil rights movement and personally antagonistic to King, used the FBI to discredit King and other civil rights leaders . </P>

Which of the following was not part of the postwar period in the united states