<P> Kirschner et al. (2006) describe worked examples as an instructional design solution for procedural learning . Clark, Nguyen, and Sweller (2006) describe this as a very effective, empirically validated method of teaching learners procedural skill acquisition . Evidence for learning by studying worked - examples, is known as the worked - example effect and has been found to be useful in many domains (e.g. music, chess, athletics) concept mapping, geometry, physics, mathematics, or programming . </P> <P> Kirschner et al. (2006) describe why they group a series of seemingly disparate learning theories (Discovery, Problem - Based, Experiential, and Inquiry - Based learning). The reasoning for this grouping is because each learning theory promotes the same constructivist teaching technique--"learning by doing ." While they argue "learning by doing" is useful for more knowledgeable learners, they argue this teaching technique is not useful for novices . Mayer states that it promotes behavioral activity too early in the learning process, when learners should be cognitively active . </P> <P> In addition, Sweller and his associates describe a continuum of guidance, starting with worked examples to slowly fade guidance . This continuum of faded guidance has been tested empirically to produce a series of learning effects: the worked - example effect, the guidance fading effect, and the expertise - reversal effect . </P> <P> After a half century of advocacy associated with instruction using minimal guidance, there appears no body of research supporting the technique . In so far as there is any evidence from controlled studies, it almost uniformly supports direct, strong instructional guidance rather constructivist - based minimal guidance during the instruction of novice to intermediate learners . Even for students with considerable prior knowledge, strong guidance while learning is most often found to be equally effective as unguided approaches . Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge </P>

The basic premise of cognitive developmental constructivism is that