<P> Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law . It stands in contrast to the idea that the ruler is above the law, for example by divine right . </P> <P> Despite wide use by politicians, judges and academics, the rule of law has been described as "an exceedingly elusive notion". Among modern legal theorists, one finds that at least two principal conceptions of the rule of law can be identified: a formalist or "thin" definition, and a substantive or "thick" definition; one occasionally encounters a third "functional" conception . Formalist definitions of the rule of law do not make a judgment about the "justness" of law itself, but define specific procedural attributes that a legal framework must have in order to be in compliance with the rule of law . Substantive conceptions of the rule of law go beyond this and include certain substantive rights that are said to be based on, or derived from, the rule of law . </P> <P> Most legal theorists believe that the rule of law has purely formal characteristics, meaning that the law must be publicly declared (prohibitions or exigencies), with prospective application (punishments or consequences tied to a given prohibition or exigency), and possess the characteristics of generality (usually meaning consistency and comprehensibility), equality (that is, applied equally throughout all society), and certainty (that is, certainty of application for a given situation), but there are no requirements with regard to the content of the law . Others, including a few legal theorists, believe that the rule of law necessarily entails protection of individual rights . Within legal theory, these two approaches to the rule of law are seen as the two basic alternatives, respectively labelled the formal and substantive approaches . Still, there are other views as well . Some believe that democracy is part of the rule of law . </P> <P> The "formal" interpretation is more widespread than the "substantive" interpretation . Formalists hold that the law must be prospective, well - known, and have characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty . Other than that, the formal view contains no requirements as to the content of the law . This formal approach allows laws that protect democracy and individual rights, but recognizes the existence of "rule of law" in countries that do not necessarily have such laws protecting democracy or individual rights . </P>

In which of the following was the doctrine of judicial review first stated