<P> The Church's power was further weakened by the Protestant Reformation (1517--1648), initially sparked by the works of German theologian Martin Luther, an attempt to start a reform within the Church . The Reformation also damaged the Holy Roman Emperor's influence, as German princes became divided between Protestant and Roman Catholic faiths . This eventually led to the Thirty Years War (1618--1648), which crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 and 40 percent of its population . In the aftermath of the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within Europe . </P> <P> The 17th century in southern, central and eastern Europe was a period of general decline . Central and Eastern Europe experienced more than 150 famines in a 200 - year period between 1501 and 1700 . From the Union of Krewo (1385) central and eastern Europe was dominated by Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Between 1648 and 1655 in the central and eastern Europe ended hegemony of the Polish--Lithuanian Commonwealth . From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia, Tatars from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves . Further east, the Nogai Horde and Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic - speaking areas of Russia, Ukraine and Poland for hundreds of years, until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia (i.e. Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia). Meanwhile, in the south, the Ottomans had conquered the Balkans by the 15th century, laying siege to Vienna in 1529 . In the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Holy League checked Ottoman power in the Mediterranean . The Ottomans again laid siege to Vienna in 1683, but the Battle of Vienna permanently ended their advance into Europe, and marked the political hegemony of the Habsburg dynasty in central Europe . </P> <P> The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention, and scientific development . Among the great figures of the Western scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Isaac Newton . According to Peter Barrett, "It is widely accepted that' modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new understanding of the natural world ." </P> <P> In the 15th century, Europe started to extend itself beyond its geographic frontiers . Portugal and Spain, two of the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the world . Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492 and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East in 1498, and soon after the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing colonial empires in the Americas and Asia . France, the Netherlands and England soon followed in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas, and Asia . </P>

The coastal zones of the north european plain are best described as