<P> The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins . It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system . </P> <P> The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation . Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells . Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources . Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors . The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant . </P> <P> The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative . Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria . </P> <P> In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram - negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles . Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials . Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells . While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective . </P>

Where does the digestive system begin and end