<P> The Carolingian dynasty, as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by Pippin III (r . 752--768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought, and gained, authority for this coup from Pope Stephen II (pope 752--757). Pippin's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great piety . At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r . 768--814) and Carloman (r . 768--771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria . Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or Charlemagne, embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern - day France, northern Italy, and Saxony . In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land . In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the Papal States . </P> <P> The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire, since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors . It also marks a change in Charlemagne's relationship with the Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state . There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire . The Frankish lands were rural in character, with only a few small cities . Most of the people were peasants settled on small farms . Little trade existed and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean . The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts, who administered the counties the empire had been divided into . Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as the imperial officials called missi dominici, who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters . </P> <P> Charlemagne's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the "Carolingian Renaissance". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies . The English monk Alcuin (d . 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the education available in the monasteries of Northumbria . Charlemagne's chancery--or writing office--made use of a new script today known as Carolingian minuscule, allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe . Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy, imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches . An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning . New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced . Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the Classical Latin of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government . By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical that it was later called Medieval Latin . </P> <P> Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, Louis the Pious (r . 814--840), was still alive by 813 . Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor . Louis's reign of 26 years was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire . Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I (d . 855) as emperor and gave him Italy . Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald (d . 877), his youngest son . Lothair took East Francia, comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps . Louis the German (d . 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother . The division was disputed . Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine, while Louis the German tried to annex all of East Francia . Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos . </P>

What three groups were invading western europe at the beginning of the middle ages