<P> Over 2,000 distinct languages are spoken in the continent . Along with Africa's indigenous dialects - Afro - Asiatic, Kordofanian and Khoisan languages, many colonial languages are spoken today . For example, English is spoken in Ghana, Gambia and Kenya, French in Benin, Burkina - Faso and Cameroon, and Portuguese in Guinea - Bissau, Angola, São Tomé and Príncipe . Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa's linguistic diversity has been eroded . Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities which has led to conflicts and tensions between African nations . </P> <P> Today, 93% of South Africa's land is still owned by' descendants of white settlers' despite the political negotiation of the Native Land Act in 1913 . King (1990) argued that' space' is a mode of segregations, creating forms of inclusions and exclusions . Evidence is represented through different architecture designs, and distinct segregation of spaces (Zonification) in cities are still a feature in the colonial present . For example, the new development of the business improvement district in Cape Town portrays a similar image of the colonial era with embedded struggles in class, race, ethnicity and hierarchical differences . Decolonization marks one of the historical moments in which African countries increased its autonomous status from the impetus Western colonial powers . Echoes of the colonial past are still visible in the African society today because Ferguson (2006) stated there are still widespread social stigmas associated with the continent such as phrases of' darkness' and' troubled' . The representation of Africa, therefore, reveals the continual Western legacies of the colonial past and the struggles embedded in the countries . </P> <P> The transition to independence in many postcolonial countries is often fraught with political and ethnic tensions . In Rwanda and neighbouring Burundi, the move from colonial to independent rule led to violence . Racialised policies under colonial rule led to rivalries between ethnic groups and was a major contributor to the 1994 Rwandan Genocide . The first Presidential election in Rwanda, 1962 was won by Grégoire Kayibanda, leader of the Parti du Mouvement de l'Emancipation du Peuple Hutu (Party for Hutu Emancipation) which sustained the backbone of his government policy . Following this, many Tutsis left the country as they became increasingly ostracised in Rwandan society . There had always been tensions between the Hutus and Tutsis, but the animosity between them grew substantially under Rwanda's transition to independence and many serious Hutu - Tutsi conflicts ensued . </P> <P> On May 6, 1957, Ghana became the first black African country to gain independence in the twentieth century . It's president, Kwame Nkrumah, was an American - educated reformer who brought many western ideas for modernization of his country . Although the Ghanian people united to throw off British rule, they did not share a common language or history, so they began to return to ethnic and regional divisions following independence . For that reason, unification was a priority for Nkrumah's administration . Within the first two years following independence, Ghana saw measurable improvements in agricultural yields, literacy, healthcare, transportation and communication . However, many of Nkrumah's initiatives were met with resistance when they disrupted traditional agricultural and social practices and were often the source of class and ethnic competition and resentment . The Volta Dam Project was planned to supply power for a smelting plant needed to create aluminum from Ghanian bauxite and to much of the country . This project was ultimately financed with the aid of the Soviet Union . In1958, Ghana hosted the All - African People's Conference, with the goal of increasing cooperation among the newly - formed African states born of decolonization . </P>

Which of the following is considered to be the cause of decolonization of africa