<P> The implementation of school integration policies did not just affect black and white students; in recent years, scholars have noted how the integration of public schools significantly affected Hispanic populations in the south and southwest . Historically, Hispanic - Americans were legally considered white . A group of Mexican - Americans in Corpus Christi, Texas challenged this classification, as it resulted in discrimination and ineffective school integration policies . In Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District (1970), the Federal District Court decreed that Hispanic - Americans should be classified as an ethnic minority group, and that the integration of Corpus Christi schools should reflect that . In 2005, historian Guadalupe San Miguel authored Brown Not White, an in - depth study of how Hispanic populations were used by school districts to circumvent truly integrating their schools . It detailed that when school districts officially categorized Hispanic students as ethnically white, a predominately African - American school and a predominately Hispanic school could be combined and successfully pass the integration standards laid out by the U.S. government, leaving white schools unaffected . San Miguel describes how the Houston Independent School District used this loophole to keep predominately white schools unchanged, at the disadvantage of Hispanic students . </P> <P> In the early 1970s, Houstonians boycotted this practice: for three weeks, thousands of Hispanic students stopped attending their local public schools in protest of the racist integration laws . In response to this boycott, in September 1972 the HISD school board - following the precedent in Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District - ruled that Hispanic students should be an official ethnic minority, effectively ending the loophole that prevented the integration of white schools . </P> <P> For students who remained in public schools, de facto segregation remained a reality due to segregated lunch tables and segregated extracurricular programs . Today, the pedagogical practice of tracking in schools also leads to de facto segregation within some public schools as racial and ethic minorities are disproportionately overrepresented in lower track classes and white students are disproportionately overrepresented in AP and college prep classes . </P> <P> The growing emphasis on standardized tests as measures of achievement in schools is a part of the dialogue surrounding the relationship between race and education in the United States . Many studies have been done surrounding the achievement gap, or the gap in test scores between white students and students of color . Scholar Harold Berlak notes that the gap hovers around 10 percent--with white students on average performing 10 percent higher on standardized tests than students of color . In his study on standardized tests, historian Wayne Au notes the connection between the long history of institutionalized racism in the United States and the achievement gap, and he makes the point that the lower test scores of students of color is one of the many long - term effects of segregated schools . </P>

When was the last school desegregated in the us
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