<P> The Mutapa Empire continued in the north under the mwenemutapa line . During the 16th century the Portuguese were able to establish permanent markets up the Zambezi River in an attempt to gain political and military control of Mutapa . They were partially successful . In 1628, a decisive battle allowed them to put a puppet mwanamutapa named Mavura, who signed treaties that gave favorable mineral export rights to the Portuguese . The Portuguese were successful in destroying the mwanamutapa system of government and undermining trade . By 1667, Mutapa was in decay . Chiefs would not allow digging for gold because of fear of Portuguese theft, and the population declined . </P> <P> The Kingdom of Butua was ruled by a changamire, a title derived from the founder, Changa . Later it became the Rozwi Empire . The Portuguese tried to gain a foothold but were thrown out of the region in 1693, by Changamire Dombo . The 17th century was a period of peace and prosperity . The Rozwi Empire fell into ruins in the 1830s from invading Nguni from Natal . </P> <P> By 1500 AD, most of southern Africa had established states . In northwestern Namibia, the Ovambo engaged in farming and the Herero engaged in herding . As cattle numbers increased, the Herero moved southward to central Namibia for grazing land . A related group, the Ovambanderu, expanded to Ghanzi in northwestern Botswana . The Nama, a Khoi - speaking, sheep - raising group, moved northward and came into contact with the Herero; this would set the stage for much conflict between the two groups . The expanding Lozi states pushed the Mbukushu, Subiya, and Yei to Botei, Okavango, and Chobe in northern Botswana . </P> <P> The development of Sotho--Tswana states based on the highveld, south of the Limpopo River, began around 1000 CE . The chief's power rested on cattle and his connection to the ancestor . This can be seen in the Toutswemogala Hill settlements with stone foundations and stone walls, north of the highveld and south of the Vaal River . Northwest of the Vaal River developed early Tswana states centered on towns of thousands of people . When disagreements or rivalry arose, different groups moved to form their own states . </P>

One of the first african civilizations was the