<P> Two carbon atoms are oxidized to CO, the energy from these reactions is transferred to other metabolic processes through GTP (or ATP), and as electrons in NADH and QH . The NADH generated in the citric acid cycle may later be oxidized (donate its electrons) to drive ATP synthesis in a type of process called oxidative phosphorylation . FADH is covalently attached to succinate dehydrogenase, an enzyme which functions both in the CAC and the mitochondrial electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation . FADH, therefore, facilitates transfer of electrons to coenzyme Q, which is the final electron acceptor of the reaction catalyzed by the succinate: ubiquinone oxidoreductase complex, also acting as an intermediate in the electron transport chain . </P> <P> The citric acid cycle is continuously supplied with new carbon in the form of acetyl - CoA, entering at step 0 below . </P> <Table> <Tr> <Th> </Th> <Th> Substrates </Th> <Th> Products </Th> <Th> Enzyme </Th> <Th> Reaction type </Th> <Th> </Th> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 0 / 10 </Td> <Td> Oxaloacetate + Acetyl CoA + H O </Td> <Td> Citrate + CoA - SH </Td> <Td> Citrate synthase </Td> <Td> Aldol condensation </Td> <Td> irreversible, extends the 4C oxaloacetate to a 6C molecule </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> Citrate </Td> <Td> cis - Aconitate + H O </Td> <Td> Aconitase </Td> <Td> Dehydration </Td> <Td> reversible isomerisation </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> cis - Aconitate + H O </Td> <Td> Isocitrate </Td> <Td> Hydration </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> Isocitrate + NAD </Td> <Td> Oxalosuccinate + NADH + H </Td> <Td> Isocitrate dehydrogenase </Td> <Td> Oxidation </Td> <Td> generates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> Oxalosuccinate </Td> <Td> α - Ketoglutarate + CO </Td> <Td> Decarboxylation </Td> <Td> rate - limiting, irreversible stage, generates a 5C molecule </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 5 </Td> <Td> α - Ketoglutarate + NAD + CoA - SH </Td> <Td> Succinyl - CoA + NADH + H + CO </Td> <Td> α - Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase </Td> <Td> Oxidative decarboxylation </Td> <Td> irreversible stage, generates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP), regenerates the 4C chain (CoA excluded) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 6 </Td> <Td> Succinyl - CoA + GDP + P </Td> <Td> Succinate + CoA - SH + GTP </Td> <Td> Succinyl - CoA synthetase </Td> <Td> substrate - level phosphorylation </Td> <Td> or ADP → ATP instead of GDP → GTP, generates 1 ATP or equivalent <P> Condensation reaction of GDP + P and hydrolysis of Succinyl - CoA involve the H O needed for balanced equation . </P> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 7 </Td> <Td> Succinate + ubiquinone (Q) </Td> <Td> Fumarate + ubiquinol (QH) </Td> <Td> Succinate dehydrogenase </Td> <Td> Oxidation </Td> <Td> uses FAD as a prosthetic group (FAD → FADH in the first step of the reaction) in the enzyme. These two electrons are later transferred to QH during Complex II of the ETC, where they generate the equivalent of 1.5 ATP </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 8 </Td> <Td> Fumarate + H O </Td> <Td> L - Malate </Td> <Td> Fumarase </Td> <Td> Hydration </Td> <Td> Hydration of C-C double bond </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 9 </Td> <Td> L - Malate + NAD </Td> <Td> Oxaloacetate + NADH + H </Td> <Td> Malate dehydrogenase </Td> <Td> Oxidation </Td> <Td> reversible (in fact, equilibrium favors malate), generates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP) </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> 10 / 0 </Td> <Td> Oxaloacetate + Acetyl CoA + H O </Td> <Td> Citrate + CoA - SH </Td> <Td> Citrate synthase </Td> <Td> Aldol condensation </Td> <Td> This is the same as step 0 and restarts the cycle . The reaction is irreversible and extends the 4C oxaloacetate to a 6C molecule </Td> </Tr> </Table> <Tr> <Th> </Th> <Th> Substrates </Th> <Th> Products </Th> <Th> Enzyme </Th> <Th> Reaction type </Th> <Th> </Th> </Tr>

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