<Table> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> This section needs additional citations to secondary or tertiary sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks . Please add such references to provide context and establish the relevance of any primary research articles cited . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (March 2015) </Td> </Tr> </Table> <Tr> <Td> </Td> <Td> This section needs additional citations to secondary or tertiary sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks . Please add such references to provide context and establish the relevance of any primary research articles cited . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (March 2015) </Td> </Tr> <P> Early speculations about the nature of the chemical bond, from as early as the 12th century, supposed that certain types of chemical species were joined by a type of chemical affinity . In 1704, Sir Isaac Newton famously outlined his atomic bonding theory, in "Query 31" of his Opticks, whereby atoms attach to each other by some "force". Specifically, after acknowledging the various popular theories in vogue at the time, of how atoms were reasoned to attach to each other, i.e. "hooked atoms", "glued together by rest", or "stuck together by conspiring motions", Newton states that he would rather infer from their cohesion, that "particles attract one another by some force, which in immediate contact is exceedingly strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from the particles with any sensible effect ." </P> <P> In 1819, on the heels of the invention of the voltaic pile, Jöns Jakob Berzelius developed a theory of chemical combination stressing the electronegative and electropositive characters of the combining atoms . By the mid 19th century, Edward Frankland, F.A. Kekulé, A.S. Couper, Alexander Butlerov, and Hermann Kolbe, building on the theory of radicals, developed the theory of valency, originally called "combining power", in which compounds were joined owing to an attraction of positive and negative poles . In 1916, chemist Gilbert N. Lewis developed the concept of the electron - pair bond, in which two atoms may share one to six electrons, thus forming the single electron bond, a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond; in Lewis's own words, "An electron may form a part of the shell of two different atoms and cannot be said to belong to either one exclusively ." </P>

Who determined there is an electrical force holding substances together