<P> Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s . The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, E.P. Thompson, and Raymond Williams, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham . This included overtly political, left - wing views, and criticisms of popular culture as "capitalist" mass culture; it absorbed some of the ideas of the Frankfurt School critique of the "culture industry" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural - studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and Paul Gilroy . </P> <P> In the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, "Cultural studies (were) grounded in a pragmatic, liberal - pluralist tradition ." The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, mass culture; for example, American cultural - studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of fandom . The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded . Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a Marxist model to the field . This strain of thinking has some influence from the Frankfurt School, but especially from the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and others . The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning . This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies power as residing with those producing cultural artifacts . In a Marxist view, those who control the means of production (the economic base) essentially control a culture . Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view . They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product . The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product . This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman (by Paul du Gay et al .), which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them . Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian Griselda Pollock contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of art history and psychoanalysis . The writer Julia Kristeva is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical French feminism . </P> <P> Petrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups: </P> <Ol> <Li> The first group covers the variables that represent the "efficiency orientation" of the societies: performance orientation, future orientation, assertiveness, power distance and uncertainty avoidance . </Li> <Li> The second covers the variables that represent the "social orientation" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members . These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in - group collectivism and human orientation . </Li> </Ol>

Many of the aspects of which two cultures