<P> Turner set up an evolutionary model (he had studied evolution with a leading geologist, Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin), using the time dimension of American history, and the geographical space of the land that became the United States . The first settlers who arrived on the east coast in the 17th century acted and thought like Europeans . They adapted to the new physical, economic and political environment in certain ways--the cumulative effect of these adaptations was Americanization . </P> <P> Successive generations moved further inland, shifting the lines of settlement and wilderness, but preserving the essential tension between the two . European characteristics fell by the wayside and the old country's institutions (e.g., established churches, established aristocracies, standing armies, intrusive government, and highly unequal land distribution) were increasingly out of place . Every generation moved further west and became more American, more democratic, and more intolerant of hierarchy . They also became more violent, more individualistic, more distrustful of authority, less artistic, less scientific, and more dependent on ad - hoc organizations they formed themselves . In broad terms, the further west, the more American the community . </P> <P> Turner saw the land frontier was ending, since the U.S. Census of 1890 had officially stated that the American frontier had broken up . He sounded an alarming note, speculating as to what this meant for the continued dynamism of American society as the source of U.S. innovation and democratic ideals was disappearing . </P> <P> Historians, geographers, and social scientists have studied frontier - like conditions in other countries, with an eye on the Turnerian model . South Africa, Canada, Russia, Brazil, Argentina and Australia--and even ancient Rome--had long frontiers that were also settled by pioneers . However these other frontier societies operated in a very difficult political and economic environment that made democracy and individualism much less likely to appear and it was much more difficult to throw off a powerful royalty, standing armies, established churches and an aristocracy that owned most of the land . The question is whether their frontiers were powerful enough to overcome conservative central forces based in the metropolis . Each nation had quite different frontier experiences . For example, the Dutch Boers in South Africa were defeated in war by Britain . In Australia, "mateship" and working together was valued more than individualism was in the United States . </P>

Who proclaimed that the western frontier was closed
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