<P> There are several kinds of arguments in logic, the best - known of which are "deductive" and "inductive ." An argument has one or more premises but only one conclusion . Each premise and the conclusion are truth bearers or "truth - candidates", each capable of being either true or false (but not both). These truth values bear on the terminology used with arguments . </P> <Ul> <Li> A deductive argument asserts that the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises . Based on the premises, the conclusion follows necessarily (with certainty). For example, given premises that A = B and B = C, then the conclusion follows necessarily that A = C. Deductive arguments are sometimes referred to as "truth - preserving" arguments . </Li> <Li> A deductive argument is said to be valid or invalid . If one assumes the premises to be true (ignoring their actual truth values), would the conclusion follow with certainty? If yes, the argument is valid . Otherwise, it is invalid . In determining validity, the structure of the argument is essential to the determination, not the actual truth values . For example, consider the argument that because bats can fly (premise = true), and all flying creatures are birds (premise = false), therefore bats are birds (conclusion = false). If we assume the premises are true, the conclusion follows necessarily, and thus it is a valid argument . </Li> <Li> If a deductive argument is valid and its premises are all true, then it is also referred to as sound . Otherwise, it is unsound, as in the "bats are birds" example . </Li> </Ul> <Li> A deductive argument asserts that the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises . Based on the premises, the conclusion follows necessarily (with certainty). For example, given premises that A = B and B = C, then the conclusion follows necessarily that A = C. Deductive arguments are sometimes referred to as "truth - preserving" arguments . </Li> <Li> A deductive argument is said to be valid or invalid . If one assumes the premises to be true (ignoring their actual truth values), would the conclusion follow with certainty? If yes, the argument is valid . Otherwise, it is invalid . In determining validity, the structure of the argument is essential to the determination, not the actual truth values . For example, consider the argument that because bats can fly (premise = true), and all flying creatures are birds (premise = false), therefore bats are birds (conclusion = false). If we assume the premises are true, the conclusion follows necessarily, and thus it is a valid argument . </Li>

Which of the following is not a characteristic of a strong argument