<P> Early on at Midvale, working as a laborer and machinist, Taylor recognized that workmen were not working their machines, or themselves, nearly as hard as they could (which at the time was called "soldiering") and that this resulted in high labor costs for the company . When he became a foreman he expected more output from the workmen . In order to determine how much work should properly be expected, he began to study and analyze the productivity of both the men and the machines (although the word "productivity" was not used at the time, and the applied science of productivity had not yet been developed). His focus on the human component of production Taylor labeled scientific management . </P> <P> While Taylor worked at Midvale, he and Clarence Clark won the first tennis doubles tournament in the 1881 US National Championships, the precursor of the US Open . Taylor became a student of Stevens Institute of Technology, studying via correspondence and obtaining a degree in mechanical engineering in 1883 . On May 3, 1884, he married Louise M. Spooner of Philadelphia . </P> <P> From 1890 until 1893 Taylor worked as a general manager and a consulting engineer to management for the Manufacturing Investment Company of Philadelphia, a company that operated large paper mills in Maine and Wisconsin . He was a plant manager in Maine . In 1893, Taylor opened an independent consulting practice in Philadelphia . His business card read "Consulting Engineer - Systematizing Shop Management and Manufacturing Costs a Specialty". Through these consulting experiences, Taylor perfected his management system . His first paper, A Piece Rate System, was presented to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in June 1895 . </P> <P> In 1898 he joined Bethlehem Steel to solve an expensive machine - shop capacity problem . While at Bethlehem, his discovered the best known and most profitable of his many patents: between 1898 and 1900 Taylor and Maunsel White conducted comprehensive empirical tests, and concluded that tungsten cutting - steel doubled or quadrupled cutting speeds; the inventors received $100,000 (equivalent to $2.5 million today) for the English patents alone, although the U.S. patent was eventually nullified . </P>

Where was the novel taken its first firm root