<P> There is little income mobility--the notion of America as a land of opportunity is a myth . </P> <P> In the substantive approach, the starting point before the race begins is unfair since people have had differing experiences before even approaching the competition . The substantive approach examines the applicants themselves before applying for a position and judges whether they have equal abilities or talents; and if not, then it suggests that authorities (usually the government) take steps to make applicants more equal before they get to the point where they compete for a position and fixing the before - the - starting - point issues has sometimes been described as working towards "fair access to qualifications". It seeks to remedy inequalities perhaps because of an "unfair disadvantage" based sometimes on "prejudice in the past". </P> <P> According to John Hills, children of wealthy and well - connected parents usually have a decisive advantage over other types of children and he notes that "advantage and disadvantage reinforce themselves over the life cycle, and often on to the next generation" so that successful parents pass along their wealth and education to succeeding generations, making it difficult for others to climb up a social ladder . However, so - called positive action efforts to bring an underprivileged person up to speed before a competition begins are limited to the period of time before the evaluation begins . At that point, the "final selection for posts must be made according to the principle the best person for the job", that is, a less qualified applicant should not be chosen over a more qualified applicant . There are also nuanced views too: one position suggested that the unequal results following a competition were unjust if caused by bad luck, but just if chosen by the individual and that weighing matters such as personal responsibility was important . This variant of the substantive model has sometimes been called luck egalitarianism . Regardless of the nuances, the overall idea is still to give children from less fortunate backgrounds more of a chance, or to achieve at the beginning what some theorists call equality of condition . Writer Ha - Joon Chang expressed this view: </P> <P> We can accept the outcome of a competitive process as fair only when the participants have equality in basic capabilities; the fact that no one is allowed to have a head start does not make the race fair if some contestants have only one leg . </P>

The type of justice considered fair and equal is known as