<Li> An open shop does not require union membership in employing or keeping workers . Where a union is active, workers who do not contribute to a union may include those who approve of the union contract (free riders) and those who do not . In the United States, state level right - to - work laws mandate the open shop in some states . In Germany only open shops are legal; that is, all discrimination based on union membership is forbidden . This affects the function and services of the union . </Li> <P> An EU case concerning Italy stated that, "The principle of trade union freedom in the Italian system implies recognition of the right of the individual not to belong to any trade union (" negative" freedom of association / trade union freedom), and the unlawfulness of discrimination liable to cause harm to non-unionized employees ." </P> <P> In Britain, previous to this EU jurisprudence, a series of laws introduced during the 1980s by Margaret Thatcher's government restricted closed and union shops . All agreements requiring a worker to join a union are now illegal . In the United States, the Taft - Hartley Act of 1947 outlawed the closed shop . </P> <P> In 2006, the European Court of Human Rights found Danish closed - shop agreements to be in breach of Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms . It was stressed that Denmark and Iceland were among a limited number of contracting states that continue to permit the conclusion of closed - shop agreements . </P>

Who organized the first all black trade union