<P> Substantive equality of opportunity is absence of indirect discrimination . It requires that society be fair and meritocratic . For instance, a person should not be more likely to die at work because they were born in a country with corrupt labor law enforcement . No - one should have to drop out of school because their family needs of a full - time carer or wage earner . </P> <P> Formal equality of opportunity does not imply substantive equality of opportunity . Firing any employee who gets pregnant is formally equal, but substantively it hurts women more . </P> <P> Substantive inequality is often more difficult to address . A political party that formally allows anyone to join, but meets in a non-wheelchair - accessible building far from public transit, substantively discriminates against both young and old members, as they are less likely to be able - bodied car - owners . But if the party raises membership dues in order to afford a better building, it discourages poor members instead . Grade - cutoff university admission is formally fair, but if in practice it overwhelmingly picks women and graduates of expensive user - fee schools, it is substantively unfair to men and the poor . The unfairness has obviously already taken place; the university can choose to try to counterbalance it, but it likely can't single - handedly make pre-university opportunities equal . </P> <P> Social mobility and the Great Gatsby Curve are often used as an indicator of substantive equality of opportunity . </P>

Who argued that individuals should own and control businesses and make all the decisions about them