<P> However, iconoclasm may have been influential in the rise of feudalism in the Byzantine Empire . Feudalism is characterized and, indeed, defined as the decline of a central governmental power as power is handed over to private, local, large landholders . In any given locality these private individuals become the new governmental power over the common people working and living in the area . The private land holders owe only a duty of military service to the central government when they are called upon by the central authority . This duty is called patronage and in exchange for the patronage the land holders are granted immunity in their rule over the locality . Ever since the reign of Emperor Severus Alexander (222--235 AD), lands on the frontiers of the Roman Empire which had been taken from enemies, were granted to Roman soldiers and their heirs on the condition that the duty for military service to the Emperor would also be hereditary and on the condition that the lands would never be sold, but would remain in the family . This was the true beginning of feudalism in the Byzantine Empire . With the advent of iconolasm, many monasteries were despoiled and church lands were seized by the Emperor . These lands were handed over to private individuals . Patronage for these individuals was once again the duty of military service to the Emperor . As noted above, some of these lands were restored to the monasteries under Empress Irene . However, feudalism had really been allowed to take root by the private control of these monastery lands . </P> <P> The Byzantine Empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors (of Armenian and Greek descent) of the late 9th, 10th, and early 11th centuries, when it gained control over the Adriatic Sea, southern Italy, and all of the territory of tsar Samuel of Bulgaria . The cities of the empire expanded, and affluence spread across the provinces because of the new - found security . The population rose, and production increased, stimulating new demand while also helping to encourage trade . Culturally, there was considerable growth in education and learning . Ancient texts were preserved and patiently re-copied . Byzantine art flourished, and brilliant mosaics graced the interiors of the many new churches . Though the empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian, it was also stronger, as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically and culturally integrated . </P> <P> Although traditionally attributed to Basil I (867--886 AD), initiator of the Macedonian dynasty, the Macedonian Renaissance has been more recently ascribed to the reforms of his predecessor, Michael III (842--867 AD) and his wife's counsellor, the erudite Theoktistos . The latter in particular favoured culture at the court, and, with a careful financial policy, steadily increased the gold reserves of the Empire . The rise of the Macedonian dynasty coincided with internal developments which strengthened the religious unity of the empire . The iconoclast movement was experiencing a steep decline: this favoured its soft suppression by the emperors and the reconciliation of the religious strife that had drained the imperial resources in the previous centuries . Despite occasional tactical defeats, the administrative, legislative, cultural and economic situation continued to improve under Basil's successors, especially with Romanos I Lekapenos (920--944 AD). The theme system reached its definitive form in this period . Once the government was safely back in iconodule hands and the monastery lands and privileges were restored again, the church establishment, once again, became a strong loyal supporter of the imperial cause . Most of the Macedonian emperors (867--1056 AD) were opposed to the interests of the aristocracy . They created much legislation to protect and favour of small agricultural landholders as opposed to the aristocracy . Prior to the Macedonian emperors, the large landholders had made up a controlling force in the society and owned most of the farm land . Since owners of the land owed military obligations to the Byzantine throne, large numbers of small landholders created larger armies than did small numbers of large land holders . Thus support for the small landholders created a stronger military force for the Empire . These favourable policies of the Macedonian emperors contributed to the increasing ability of the emperors to wage war against the Arabs . </P> <P> By 867, the empire had re-stabilised its position in both the east and the west, and the efficiency of its defensive military structure enabled its emperors to begin planning wars of reconquest in the east . The process of reconquest began with variable fortunes . The temporary reconquest of Crete (843 AD) was followed by a crushing Byzantine defeat on the Bosporus, while the emperors were unable to prevent the ongoing Muslim conquest of Sicily (827--902 AD). Using present day Tunisia as their launching pad, the Muslims conquered Palermo in 831 AD, Messina in 842 AD, Enna in 859 AD, Syracuse in 878 AD, Catania in 900 AD and the final Byzantine stronghold, the fortress of Taormina, in 902 AD . </P>

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