<P> The executive magistrates of the Roman Republic were officials of the ancient Roman Republic (c. 510 BC--44 BC), elected by the People of Rome . Ordinary magistrates (magistratus) were divided into several ranks according to their role and the power they wielded: censors, consuls (who functioned as the regular head of state), praetors, curule aediles, and finally quaestor . Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers . By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates as they were elected only by the plebeians, but no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions . Dictator was an extraordinary magistrate normally elected in times of emergency (usually military) for a short period . During this period, the dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate . </P> <P> The magistrates (magistratus) were elected by the People of Rome, which consisted of plebeians (commoners) and patricians (aristocrats). Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power, called "major powers" or maior potestas . Dictators had more "major powers" than any other magistrate, and thus they outranked all other magistrates; but were originally intended only to be a temporary tool for times of state emergency . Thereafter in descending order came the censor (who, while the highest - ranking ordinary magistrate by virtue of his prestige, held little real power), the consul, the praetor, the curule aedile, and the quaestor . Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers . If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates of equal rank, such as two praetors, then it was called par potestas (negation of powers). To prevent this, magistrates used a principle of alteration, assigned responsibilities by lot or seniority, or gave certain magistrates control over certain functions . If this obstruction occurred against a magistrate of a lower rank, then it was called intercessio, where the magistrate literally interposed his higher rank to obstruct the lower - ranking magistrate . By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates since they were elected only by the plebeians . As such, no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions . </P> <P> Only Roman citizens (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer magisterial powers (potestas) on any individual magistrate . The most important power was imperium, which was held by consuls (the chief magistrates) and by praetors (the second highest - ranking ordinary magistrate). Defined narrowly, imperium simply gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force . Defined more broadly, however, imperium gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military, diplomatic, civil, or otherwise). A magistrate's imperium was at its apex while the magistrate was abroad . While the magistrate was in the city of Rome itself, however, he had to completely surrender his imperium, so that liberty (libertas) was maximized . Magistrates with imperium sat in a curule chair, and were attended by lictors (bodyguards) who carried axes called fasces which symbolized the power of the state to punish and to execute . Only a magistrate with imperium could wear a bordered toga, or be awarded a triumph . </P> <P> All magistrates had the power of coercion (coercitio), which was used by magistrates to maintain public order . A magistrate had many ways with which to enforce this power . Examples include flogging, imprisonment, fines, mandating pledges and oaths, enslavement, banishment, and sometimes even the destruction of a person's house . While in Rome, all citizens had an absolute protection against Coercion . This protection was called "Provocatio" (see below), which allowed any citizen to appeal any punishment . However, the power of Coercion outside the city of Rome was absolute . Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens from the Gods (auspicia), which could be used to obstruct political opponents . By claiming to witness an omen, a magistrate could justify the decision to end a legislative or senate meeting, or the decision to veto a colleague . While the magistrates had access to oracular documents, the Sibylline books, they rarely consulted with these books, and even then, only after seeing an omen . All senior magistrates (consuls, praetors, censors, and plebeian tribunes) were required to actively look for omens (auspicia impetrativa); simply having omens thrust upon them (auspicia oblativa) was generally not adequate . Omens could be discovered while observing the heavens, while studying the flight of birds, or while studying the entrails of sacrificed animals . When a magistrate believed that he had witnessed such an omen, he usually had a priest (augur) interpret the omen . A magistrate was required to look for omens while presiding over a legislative or senate meeting, and while preparing for a war . </P>

Executives empowered to carry out laws in the roman republic