<P> Although trade unions for black and coloured (mixed race) workers had existed since the early 20th century, it was not until the 1980s reforms that a mass black trade union movement developed . Trade unions under apartheid were racially segregated, with 54 unions being white only, 38 for Indian and coloured and 19 for black people . The Industrial Conciliation Act (1956) legislated against the creation of multi-racial trade unions and attempted to split existing multi-racial unions into separate branches or organisations along racial lines . </P> <P> In the 1970s the state spent ten times more per child on the education of white children than on black children within the Bantu Education system (the education system in black schools within white South Africa). Higher education was provided in separate universities and colleges after 1959 . Eight black universities were created in the homelands . Fort Hare University in the Ciskei (now Eastern Cape) was to register only Xhosa - speaking students . Sotho, Tswana, Pedi and Venda speakers were placed at the newly founded University College of the North at Turfloop, while the University College of Zululand was launched to serve Zulu students . Coloureds and Indians were to have their own establishments in the Cape and Natal respectively . </P> <P> Each black homeland controlled its own education, health and police systems . Blacks were not allowed to buy hard liquor . They were able only to buy state - produced poor quality beer (although this was relaxed later). Public beaches were racially segregated . Public swimming pools, some pedestrian bridges, drive - in cinema parking spaces, graveyards, parks, and public toilets were segregated . Cinemas and theatres in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks . There were practically no cinemas in black areas . Most restaurants and hotels in white areas were not allowed to admit blacks except as staff . Blacks were prohibited from attending white churches under the Churches Native Laws Amendment Act of 1957, but this was never rigidly enforced and churches were one of the few places races could mix without the interference of the law . Blacks earning 360 rand a year or more had to pay taxes while the white threshold was more than twice as high, at 750 rand a year . On the other hand, the taxation rate for whites was considerably higher than that for blacks . </P> <P> Blacks could never acquire land in white areas . In the homelands, much of the land belonged to a "tribe", where the local chieftain would decide how the land had to be used . This resulted in whites owning almost all the industrial and agricultural lands and much of the prized residential land . Most blacks were stripped of their South African citizenship when the "homelands" became "independent", and they were no longer able to apply for South African passports . Eligibility requirements for a passport had been difficult for blacks to meet, the government contending that a passport was a privilege, not a right, and the government did not grant many passports to blacks . Apartheid pervaded culture as well as the law, and was entrenched by most of the mainstream media . </P>

Who took control of the south african government in the 1970s