<P> Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace . An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased . In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand ." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes . In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers . </P> <P> As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses . This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding . Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever - pulling behavior in gamblers . Because the machines are programmed to pay out less money than they take in, the persistent slot - machine user invariably loses in the long run . Slots machines, and thus variable ratio reinforcement, have often been blamed as a factor underlying gambling addiction . </P> <P> Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively--if not more effectively--than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement . </P> <P> The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement in humans is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning . Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior . Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance . Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement . Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery . In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly . </P>

What is the importance of reinforcement in learning situations