<P> Robin Horton maintains that the difference between the thinking of Western and of non-Western peoples is predominantly "idiomatic ." He asserts that the members of both cultures use the same practical common - sense, and that both science and magic are ways beyond basic logic by which people formulate theories to explain whatever occurs . However, non-Western cultures use the idiom of magic and have community spiritual figures, and therefore non-Westerners turn to magical practices or to a specialist in that idiom . Horton sees the same logic and common - sense in all cultures, but notes that their contrasting ontological idioms lead to cultural practices which seem illogical to observers whose own culture has correspondingly contrasting norms . He explains, "(T) he layman's grounds for accepting the models propounded by the scientist are often no different from the young African villager's ground for accepting the models propounded by one of his elders ." </P> <P> Along similar lines, Michael F. Brown argues that the Aguaruna of Peru see magic as a type of technology, no more supernatural than their physical tools . Brown says that the Aguaruna utilize magic in an empirical manner; for example, they discard any magical stones which they have found to be ineffective . To Brown--as to Horton--magical and scientific thinking differ merely in idiom . </P> <P> These theories blur the boundaries between magic, science, and religion, and focus on the similarities in magical, technical, and spiritual practices . Brown even ironically writes that he is tempted to disclaim the existence of' magic .' </P> <P> One theory of substantive difference is that of the open versus closed society . Horton describes this as one of the key dissimilarities between traditional thought and Western science . He suggests that the scientific worldview is distinguished from a magical one by the scientific method and by skepticism, requiring the falsifiability of any scientific hypothesis . He notes that for native peoples "there is no developed awareness of alternatives to the established body of theoretical texts ." He notes that all further differences between traditional and Western thought can be understood as a result of this factor . Because there are no alternatives in societies based on magical thought, a theory does not need to be objectively judged to be valid . </P>

3. what is the logic behind the difference principle