<P> Robert J. Sampson (1993) claims that any theory of crime must begin with the fact that most violent criminals belonged to teenage peer - groups, particularly street gangs, and that a gang member will become a full - time criminal if social controls are insufficient to address delinquent behaviour at an early age . He follows Shaw and McKay (1969) in accepting that, if the family and relatives offer inadequate supervision or incomplete socialization, children from broken families are more likely to join violent gangs, unless others take the parents' place . However, even children from unstable families are less likely to be influenced by peer groups in a community where most family units are intact . Tight - knit communities are more likely to identify strangers, report deviants to their parents, and pass warnings along . High rates of residential mobility and high - rise housing disrupt the ability to establish and maintain social ties . Formal organizations like schools, churches, and the police act as surrogates for family and friends in many communities, but poor, unstable communities often lack the organisation and political connections to obtain resources for fighting crime and offering young people an alternative to deviant behavior . Sampson concludes that "the empirical data suggest that the structural elements of social disorganisation have relevance for explaining macro level variations in violence ." </P> <P> Social disorganisation may also produce crime by isolating communities from the mainstream culture . Sampson and Wilson (1995) proposed a theory of race and urban inequality to explain the disproportionate representation of African Americans as victims and offenders in violent crime . The basic idea proposed was that community - level patterns of racial inequality give rise to the social isolation and ecological concentration of the truly disadvantaged, which in turn leads to structural barriers and cultural adaptations that undermine social organisation and ultimately the control of crime . Sampson and Wilson (1995) pursued this logic to argue that the community - level causes of violence are the same for both whites and blacks, but that racial segregation by community differentially exposes members of minority groups to key violence - inducing and violence - protecting social mechanisms, thereby explaining black - white disparities in violence . Their thesis has come to be known as "racial invariance" in the fundamental causes of crime . </P> <P> Robert J. Bursik Jr's scholarly works played an important role in the revival of Social Disorganization Theory following its fall in popularity during the 1960s . One of the main criticisms of Shaw and McKay's theory was that it suggested, in certain area's delinquency rates remained high regardless of the ethnicity group that lived there . Researchers during this period felt that it was unlikely that crime patterns remained stable even though there were constant changes in population without these areas . Bursik's work helped negate some of the criticisms associated with Shaw and McKay's work; Bursik showed that it was possible and likely to have stable crime patterns within an area that showed constant population change . Specifically Bursik points out that "development of primary relationships that result in informal structures of social control is less likely when local networks are in continual state of flux ." In the example of Chicago, as immigrants continue to come in, the population already there leave soon as it's financially feasible, which in return makes it difficult for any stable form of social control to take place . </P> <P> Robert J. Bursik and Harold G. Grasmick further contributed to Social Disorganization Theory by reformulating concepts of social control within neighbourhoods that was introduced by Sampson and Groves, into three types of social control that are influenced by structural factors . Personal Social Control, Parochial Social Control and Public Social Control which are influenced by structural factors within a neighbourhood such as poverty, residential mobility, heterogeneity and broken homes affect the ability of the neighbourhood to implement models of social control . </P>

What is a major criticism of social disorganization theory
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