<P> The 1651 Act (like other laws of the Commonwealth period) was declared void on the Restoration of Charles II, having been passed by' usurping powers' . Parliament therefore passed new legislation . This is generally referred to as the "Navigation Acts", and (with some amendments) remained in force for nearly two centuries . </P> <P> The Navigation Act 1660 (passed on 13 September) added a twist to Oliver Cromwell's Act: ships' crews had to be three - quarters English, and "enumerated" products not produced by the mother country, such as tobacco, cotton, and sugar were to be shipped from the colonies only to England or other English colonies . Ship captains were required to post a bond to ensure compliance and could recoup the funds upon arrival . </P> <P> The Navigation Act 1663 (also called the Act for the Encouragement of Trade, passed on 27 July) required all European goods bound for America (or other colonies) to be shipped through England first . In England, the goods would be unloaded, inspected, paid duties, approved, and finally reloaded . The trade had to be carried in English vessels ("bottoms"), which included those of its colonies . Furthermore, imports of' enumerated commodities' (such as sugar, rice, and tobacco) had to be landed and pay tax before going on to other countries . This increased the cost to the colonies, and increased the shipping time . "England" here includes Wales, though it was little involved in trade to distant parts . After the Act of Union 1707, Scotland enjoyed the same privileges . </P> <P> This Act entitled colonial shipping and seamen to enjoy the full benefits of the exclusive provisions . There was no bar put in the way of colonists who might wish to trade in their own shipping with foreign plantations or European countries other than England, provided they did not violate the enumerated commodity clause . "English bottoms" included vessels built in English plantations (i.e. colonies), for example in America . Further Navigation Acts were passed in 1673 to close a loophole and in 1696 to strengthen enforcement . </P>

Which is not a way in which england's mercantile policy benefited the colonies