<P> Several studies on the effect of critical habitat designation on species' recovery rates have been done between 1997 and 2003 . Although it has been criticized, the Taylor study in 2003 found that, "species with critical habitat were...twice as likely to be improving ..." </P> <P> Critical habitats are required to contain "all areas essential to the conservation" of the imperiled species, and may be on private or public lands . The Fish and Wildlife Service has a policy limiting designation to lands and waters within the U.S. and both federal agencies may exclude essential areas if they determine that economic or other costs exceed the benefit . The ESA is mute about how such costs and benefits are to be determined . </P> <P> All federal agencies are prohibited from authorizing, funding or carrying out actions that "destroy or adversely modify" critical habitats (Section 7 (a) (2)). While the regulatory aspect of critical habitat does not apply directly to private and other non-federal landowners, large - scale development, logging and mining projects on private and state land typically require a federal permit and thus become subject to critical habitat regulations . Outside or in parallel with regulatory processes, critical habitats also focus and encourage voluntary actions such as land purchases, grant making, restoration, and establishment of reserves . </P> <P> The ESA requires that critical habitat be designated at the time of or within one year of a species being placed on the endangered list . In practice, most designations occur several years after listing . Between 1978 and 1986 the FWS regularly designated critical habitat . In 1986 the Reagan Administration issued a regulation limiting the protective status of critical habitat . As a result, few critical habitats were designated between 1986 and the late 1990s . In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a series of court orders invalidated the Reagan regulations and forced the FWS and NMFS to designate several hundred critical habitats, especially in Hawaii, California and other western states . Midwest and Eastern states received less critical habitat, primarily on rivers and coastlines . As of December, 2006, the Reagan regulation has not yet been replaced though its use has been suspended . Nonetheless, the agencies have generally changed course and since about 2005 have tried to designate critical habitat at or near the time of listing . </P>

Which one of the following is not a way that the pressure can be taken off of endangered species