<P> The history of syphilis has been well - studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate . There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized . These are referred to as the "Columbian" and "pre-Columbian" hypotheses . The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493 . The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494 / 1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples . </P> <P> One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges . For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500--1800" Pieter Remmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a' clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic". This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures . For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor". An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America . When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved . For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission . When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan . The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas . These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants . As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization" they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves". In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations . Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property . Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people . In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions . An example of this can be found in the tobacco industry . </P> <P> Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange . As is discussed in regard to the trans - Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide . In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493--1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have". As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous peoples, they took with them the cultural practices related to tobacco, and spread them to additional regions . Therefore, demand for tobacco grew in the course of the cultural exchanges and increased contacts among peoples . </P> <Table> Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans <Tr> <Th> Type of organism </Th> <Th> Old World to New World </Th> <Th> New World to Old World </Th> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> Domesticated animals </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> cat (domestic--wild species already present) </Li> <Li> cattle </Li> <Li> chicken </Li> <Li> donkey </Li> <Li> goat (the goats of the Old World, genus Capra, are different from the mountain goat of the New World, genus Oreamnos) </Li> <Li> guineafowl </Li> <Li> honey bee (European honey bee--other wild and domesticated species already present) </Li> <Li> horse </Li> <Li> rabbit (domestic) </Li> <Li> pig </Li> <Li> sheep (domestic) </Li> <Li> water buffalo </Li> </Ul> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> alpaca </Li> <Li> guinea pig </Li> <Li> llama </Li> <Li> Muscovy duck </Li> <Li> turkey </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> Cultivated plants </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> almond </Li> <Li> apple </Li> <Li> apricot </Li> <Li> asparagus </Li> <Li> banana (including cooking banana) </Li> <Li> barley </Li> <Li> basil </Li> <Li> beetroot </Li> <Li> Brassica oleracea - derived vegetables <Ul> <Li> broccoli </Li> <Li> Brussels sprout </Li> <Li> cabbage </Li> <Li> cauliflower </Li> <Li> collard greens </Li> <Li> kale </Li> </Ul> </Li> <Li> cantaloupe </Li> <Li> carrot </Li> <Li> celery </Li> <Li> chickpea </Li> <Li> citrus (orange, lemon, etc .) </Li> <Li> coffee </Li> <Li> common fig </Li> <Li> coriander (also known as cilantro) </Li> <Li> cucumber </Li> <Li> cumin </Li> <Li> eggplant </Li> <Li> Elaeis (oil palm) </Li> <Li> fennel </Li> <Li> flax </Li> <Li> garlic </Li> <Li> ginger </Li> <Li> hemp (including cannabis) </Li> <Li> leek </Li> <Li> lentil </Li> <Li> lettuce </Li> <Li> mango </Li> <Li> millet </Li> <Li> Momordica charantia (bitter melon) </Li> <Li> oat </Li> <Li> okra </Li> <Li> olive </Li> <Li> onion </Li> <Li> opium </Li> <Li> oregano </Li> <Li> pea </Li> <Li> peach </Li> <Li> pear </Li> <Li> pistachio </Li> <Li> pomegranate </Li> <Li> radish </Li> <Li> rice </Li> <Li> rye </Li> <Li> sesame </Li> <Li> sorghum </Li> <Li> soybean </Li> <Li> spinach </Li> <Li> sugarcane and sugar beet </Li> <Li> turmeric </Li> <Li> turnip </Li> <Li> watermelon </Li> <Li> wheat </Li> <Li> yam (sometimes misnamed "sweet potato") </Li> </Ul> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Acca sellowiana (feijoa, pineapple guava, Brazilian guava, guavasteen) </Li> <Li> Annona reticulata (custard apple) </Li> <Li> agave </Li> <Li> allspice </Li> <Li> amaranth (as grain) </Li> <Li> annatto </Li> <Li> arrowroot or Maranta arundinacea </Li> <Li> avocado </Li> <Li> bell pepper </Li> <Li> Calathea allouia (leren) </Li> <Li> Canna indica (achira) </Li> <Li> cashew </Li> <Li> cassava (manioc, tapioca, yuca) </Li> <Li> chili pepper </Li> <Li> cherimoya </Li> <Li> cocoa bean </Li> <Li> cotton (long - staple species) </Li> <Li> cranberry (large cranberry, or bearberry species) </Li> <Li> cucurbita (squash) </Li> <Li> Eryngium foetidum (culantro, Mexican coriander) </Li> <Li> guava (common) </Li> <Li> Helianthus (sunflower) </Li> <Li> Jerusalem artichoke </Li> <Li> Pachyrhizus erosus (jícama) </Li> <Li> maize (corn) </Li> <Li> Manilkara zapota (sapodilla) </Li> <Li> Opuntia ficus - indica (prickly pear) </Li> <Li> papaya </Li> <Li> passionfruit </Li> <Li> peanut </Li> <Li> pecan </Li> <Li> Phaseolus vulgaris (beans: pinto, lima, kidney, etc .) </Li> <Li> pineapple </Li> <Li> pitaya (dragon fruit) </Li> <Li> potato </Li> <Li> pumpkin </Li> <Li> quinoa </Li> <Li> soursop </Li> <Li> stevia </Li> <Li> strawberry (commercial varieties) </Li> <Li> sugar - apple </Li> <Li> sweet potato </Li> <Li> tobacco </Li> <Li> tomato </Li> <Li> vanilla </Li> <Li> yerba mate </Li> <Li> yucca </Li> <Li> zucchini (courgette) </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> <Tr> <Td> Infectious diseases </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> bubonic plague </Li> <Li> chickenpox </Li> <Li> cholera </Li> <Li> diphtheria </Li> <Li> influenza </Li> <Li> leprosy </Li> <Li> malaria </Li> <Li> measles </Li> <Li> pertussis </Li> <Li> scarlet fever </Li> <Li> smallpox </Li> <Li> typhoid fever </Li> <Li> typhus </Li> <Li> yaws </Li> <Li> yellow fever </Li> </Ul> </Td> <Td> <Ul> <Li> Chagas disease </Li> <Li> Nonvenereal endemic syphilis </Li> <Li> pinta </Li> <Li> syphilis (disputed) </Li> </Ul> </Td> </Tr> </Table>

What was one effect of the columbian exchange on the americas during the colonial era