<P> A traditional view of multi-male primate groups is held that males provide relatively little direct care to infants, possibly as a result of the low confidence of paternity that is associated with this relatively promiscuous breeding system . In the last five years this view has changed however, as a result of a careful documentation of intimate male - infant affiliations in certain species, especially the savanna - dwelling baboons (Papio spp .). Recent field studies of baboons suggest that male - infant relationships are mediated through affiliations between the males and the infants' mothers, but the degree to which these male - female affiliations are based on prior mating experience (hence, paternity) has not been established . Comparative studies of male - infant relations in primates have given little attention to the variation in the intensity and form of male care patterns within the set of species that have a multi-male social organization . Among multi-male species, male care of young is reported most often in baboons and barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) and least often in other macaques, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), and vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus). This interspecific variation may result both from differences in the importance of male care to infant survival and from differences in male confidence of paternity, which in turn may relate to seasonal breeding patterns and, in particular, to the presence or absence of conspicuous signs of ovulation in females . </P> <P> In some multi-male groups, the costs for infanticidal males seem likely to be high, since other resident males might defend the victim, and the benefits seem likely to be low because of the generally lower paternal probability in multi-male groups . However, in other primate species living in multi-male groups, males have been observed to kill infants . The aggressors are typically extra-group males, recent immigrants, have recently been introduced or are conceived outside the group, mainly due to the fact that they could not possibly be related to the infants they kill . A male's age and rank influence the occurrence of infanticide . The youngest and highest - ranking immigrant males are more likely to commit infanticide than their older and lower - ranking counterparts if putative fathers fail to protect infants . </P> <P> A benefit of living in multi-male groups is the collective protection that the group as a whole receives from outsiders as well as sufficient protection of infants against infanticide from other outside roaming males . Another benefit is the low costs of finding a mate and reproducing since the males and females are always together . Also, participants in multi-male groups have better access to resources such as food and living quarters . However, a major cost to living in a multi-male group is the constant competition for mates, mainly among males but also among females . </P> <P> Most non-human primate communities are more or less closed to contact with members of other communities . Most often, they are tied to a particular locale and rarely migrate outside of their home range . This aloofness from other troops prevents high concentrations of individuals, which could result in rapid depletion of local resources . Communities usually avoid each other and are aggressive towards outsiders . As a result, social interactions between members of different troops are usually very rare, especially for females . Chimpanzees are a notable exception . When chimpanzees from different troops come together, there is often an exciting, friendly encounter lasting several hours, following which, some of the adult females switch groups . Apparently, they are seeking new mates . Occasionally, however, contact between communities of the comparatively unpredictable chimpanzees will develop into genocidal violence . Interactions within non-human primate communities are usually unlimited . Subgroups are rarely closed from group interaction . All members of a community have daily face - to - face, casual interaction . The most common type of subgroup consists of a mother and her young offspring . </P>

Hypothesizes that females living in multi-male groups need to both